The systematics of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea are reviewed, focusing on studies of relationships among families and within genera, more superficially on taxonomic studies at the species level. For the families Bernieridae and Phylloscopidae, new analyses based on already published sequence data are presented. Our understanding of relationships has been vastly improved in recent years due to a large number of molecular studies. However, the relationships among the different families remain largely obscured, probably mainly as a result of rapid divergence of the different primary lineages (families). Also, species level taxonomy has been much improved in recent years due to a large number of studies applying molecular markers and/or vocalizations and other life-history data. It seems likely that the number of species will continue to increase, as new groups are being studied with modern integrative methods.

The field biology of the Grey Francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) was studied in 2009 in an agro-ecosystem of the Pothwar area, an important range of its distribution in Pakistan. The bird density was estimated as 1.59±0.39 (mean±standard error) birds per ha in crop fields and 0.87±0.14 birds per ha in forest tracks, with some seasonal fluctuations in its habitat. All bird nests were located on the ground in vegetation mainly comprised of Desmostachia bipinnata, Acacia modesta, Imperata cylindrical, Zizipus jujuba and Euphorbia spp. Egg laying was recorded during the spring and summer months, with a mean egg laying span of 6±0.36 days (range 5-7 days) and a mean clutch size of 7±0.36 (range of 6-8 eggs). The mean incubation period was 20.6±0.50 days (range 19-22 days). Out of a total number of 42 eggs recorded, 32 hatched (76.19% success) with a mean hatching rate of 5.33±1.22 eggs per clutch. The fledgling success was estimated as 3.83±0.83 per clutch (63.08%). The species was found to be omnivorous and euryphagus in its feeding habit. There were 10 identifiable food items in the diet of the species, consisting of seven plant species (Pennisetum typhoideum, Sorghum bicolor, S. halepense, Prosopis juliflora, Phaseolus radiates, Carthemus axycantha and Acacia sp.), two insect species (Coptotermes formosanus and Formica rufa) and one grit.

This paper reviews the population trends and threats for the 15 species of cranes, and comments on conservation priorities for the family as a whole. Cranes occur on five continents, with greatest diversity in East Asia (nine species) and Sub-Saharan Africa (six species). Eleven crane species are threatened with extinction according to the IUCN Red List, including one species Critically Endangered, three species Endangered, and seven species Vulnerable. Of the four species of Least Concern, population sizes for the Demoiselle (Anthropoides virgo) and Brolga (Grus rubicunda) are not well known but these species are declining in some areas. The Sandhill (G. canadensis) and Eurasian Cranes (G. grus) are the most abundant cranes and have rapidly increased in part due to their flexible selection of foraging habitats and use of agriculture lands and waste grain as a food source. Status for six species—Grey Crowned (Balearica regulorum), Blue (Anthropoides paradise), Black-necked (G. nigricollis), Red-crowned (G. japonensis), Sandhill, and Siberian (G. leucogeranus)—are summarized in more detail to illustrate the diversity of population shifts and threats within the crane family. A crane threat matrix lists the major threats, rates each threat for each species, and scores each threat for the crane family as a whole. Four of the five greatest threats are to the ecosystems that cranes depend upon, while only one of the top threats (human disturbance) relates to human action directly impacting on cranes. Four major threats are discussed: dams and water diversions, agriculture development, crane trade, and climate change. Conservation efforts should be strongly science-based, reduce direct threats to the birds, safeguard or restore habitat, and strengthen awareness among decision makers and local communities for how to safeguard cranes and wetlands. Especially for the most severely threatened species, significantly stronger efforts will be needed to incorporate our understanding of the needs of cranes and the ecosystems they inhabit into decisions about agriculture, water management, energy development and other human activities.

The Red-crowned Crane (Grus japonensis) is a globally endangered species. Although this species has received much attention by scientists, conservationists and the general public, the continental population of the Red-crowned Crane continues to face serious threats which affect not only its population dynamics but also its breeding and wintering habitats. Habitat loss and deterioration are the main causes of the decline of its population. With the massive loss of habitats in all parts of its range-breeding, stopover and wintering grounds-the cranes have been forced into crops and farmlands where cranes are more vulnerable to human activities, such as poisoning the cranes and conflicts with farmers. From our review of studies done over 30 years, the eastern flyway subpopulation has been stable or slightly increasing and the western flyway subpopulation of the Red-crowned Crane has sharply declined in recent years. The wintering population for the western flyway has declined from over 1100 to less than 500 birds. Not only is the size of the population reduced to less than 50%, but most recently the decline has occurred with frightening speed, by 50-150 birds per winter. The current wintering range for the west flyway is only about 8% of its extent in the 1980s. Urgent actions for habitat protection, law enforcement and education need to stop the declining trend for this species.

In undertaking regular surveys on those waterbirds appearing on Fujian coast and on offshore islands, people of Xiamen Bird-watching Society had observed, for five times during 2007 -2009, three marked individuals of the Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) on Caiyu Archipelago of Caiyu Archipelago of south Fujian offshore; it is now quite certain that the leg-flags were marked on birds by people of the Australasian Wader Studies Group (AWSG) and at least one of those leg-flagged terns is already over six or seven years old by the time of re-sighting; this record might be useful and helpful for further estimating the life circle as well as the length of generation of those gulls and terns appearing and breeding along the SE Chinese coast, such as the Black-tailed Gull (Larus crassirostris), the Great Crested Tern (Sterna bergii), the Chinese Crested Tern (S. bernsteini), etc.

A study of the population status of and threats to the Black-winged Lovebird (Agapornis taranta) was carried out from September 2008 to February 2009 in Entoto Natural Park (ENP) and in Bole Sub-City, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A point transect count technique was employed to examine the status of the lovebirds. An average total of 58 birds was recorded of which 46 were counted in Bole Sub-City and 12 in Entoto Natural Park areas. The maximum number recorded during our census was 57 in the dry season and 15 in the wet season in Bole Sub-City and Entoto Natural Park, respectively. The ratio of adult males to adult females in Entoto Natural Park was 1:0.71 and 1:0.60, and 1:0.76 and 1:0.78 in Bole Sub-City during both wet and dry seasons, respectively. The seasonal variation and difference in sex ratios between males and females was not significant (p > 0.05) at either of the study sites. The threat for the Black-winged Lovebird or other birds in Entoto Natural Park is due to the fragmentation of natural habitats, thus decreasing food sources, owing to the domination of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) trees in the area. Grazing by livestock, intensive farming practices and deforestation by the local community have contributed greatly to the degradation of the land resulting in erosion, thus devastating the habitat of the Natural Park. The vegetation cover of Entoto Natural Park and urban gardens should be managed effectively for the survival of the avian fauna of the area.

In this exposé we provide the first review of host use by brood parasitic cuckoos in a multiple-cuckoo system in China, based on our own long-term field data and a compilation of observations obtained from the literature. In total, we found that 11 species of cuckoos utilized altogether 55 host species. These hosts belong to 15 families, in which Sylviidae, Turdidae and Timaliidae account for 22.6%, 20.8% and 17.0% of parasitism records, respectively. The Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) had the widest range of host species, accounting for 45.5% of the total number of parasitized species (25 in 10 families) of all parasitism records and is the most frequent brood parasite in the country. Cuckoo species differed in their egg coloration and the extent of egg polymorphism with most of them, e.g. the Common Cuckoo, the Lesser Cuckoo (C. poliocephalus) and the Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) laying well mimetic eggs with respect to their hosts based on human being's visual observations, while others such as the Large Hawk-cuckoo (C. sparverioides), the Himalayan Cuckoo (C. saturatus) and the Asian Emerald Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx maculatus) usually laid non-mimetic eggs. The use of cuckoo hosts and egg color variation in China are compared with those in other parts of their ranges in Asia.

Fisher's theory predicts equal sex ratios at the end of parental care if the cost associated with raising offspring of each sex is equal. However, sex ratios have important evolutionary consequences and are often biased for many factors. Reported sex ratios are often biased in raptors, which display various degrees of reversed sexual dimorphism, but there seems no consistent pattern in their offspring sex ratios. In this study, we investigated the offspring sex ratio of the Eurasian Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and tested whether the patterns of biased sex ratios were related to laying order, egg mass, hatching order, laying date or clutch size. The brood sex ratio of the Eurasian Kestrel (male) in eggs was 47.0%, not statistically biased from 0.5, but in fledglings it was 40.8%, significantly biased from 0.5 (p=0.029). At population level, both primary and secondary sex ratios did not depart from parity. We found that clutch size and egg mass affected the secondary brood sex ratio, i.e., the larger the clutch size, the larger the number of males and eggs producing sons were heavier than eggs producing daughters. Laying date affected both the primary and secondary sex ratios, and laying earlier is associated with a greater proportion of males.

Brood parasitic birds constitute a model system for the study of coevolution. Such parasites are unique by having evolved unusually thick eggshells for their body size. Thick eggshells have been hypothesized to evolve as 1) a means of preventing damage to parasite eggs when the brood parasite lays its egg at a distance from the host clutch (the laying damage hypothesis); 2) a consequence of host puncture ejection (the puncture resistance hypothesis); 3) a means for the brood parasite to allocate calcium to development of a disproportionately large skeleto-muscular system in evicting parasite chicks (the chick vigour hypothesis); or 4) a means of protecting the cuckoo embryo from microorganisms in the nest of the host (the anti-bacterial protection hypothesis). Here we review the literature studying the evolutionary mechanisms promoting thick eggshells in avian brood parasites,and provide proposals for future studies to test their validity. Available data are insufficient to rigorously test exclusive predictions and assumptions of these not necessarily exclusive hypotheses,although the laying damage and the puncture resistance hypotheses seem to currently be the most well supported alternatives. We discuss how quantification of rejection modes (grasp ejection,puncture ejection and desertion) may disclose the validity of the puncture resistance hypothesis,and finally we provide perspectives for future research on testing this specific hypothesis.

The primer pair sex1/sex2, which can be widely applied for sex identification in Galliform species, was used to determine the sex of 17 Passeriform species. As CHD-W fragments tended to be preferentially amplified, which may cause unnecessary misidentification in bird species with little difference between CHD-Z and CHD-W, we modified sex1 and sex2, obtaining sex1' and sex-mix respectively. Primer sets were then recombined to conduct sex identification. After testing several Passeriforme birds of known sex, we found that the primer pair sex1'/sex2 was better at limiting the preferential amplification of CHD-W fragments. As they are being frequently used in sex allocation study of Aegithalos concinnus and song learning research of Lonchura striata, we can expect more applications of this primer pair to further studies in Passeriformes.

We use the term "basal birds" for a relatively small number of primitive fossil birds that fall outside the major clade Ornithothoraces, which includes both modern birds and enantiornithines. Eight genera and twelve valid species have been reported from China in the last 15 years, whereas Archaeopteryx lithographica remains the only basal bird to have been described from non-Chinese specimens (although confuciusornithid material is apparently present in North Korea). Here we briefly review the Chinese basal birds and their anatomy, phylogeny and ecology. Chinese fossils have contributed extensively to scientific understanding of early avian evolution, demonstrating collectively that basal birds were generally relatively large and morphologically and ecologically quite diverse. Although some significant uncertainties remain, particularly with respect to the relative phylogenetic positions of Jeholornis, Sapeornis and Zhongornis, an increasingly clear picture of the first stages of avian evolution is emerging from the Chinese fossil record.

The Great Bustard (Otis tarda) world population is estimated to be 44100-57000 individuals in 2010, of which about 57-70% occur in Spain, 15-25% in European Russia, 4-10% in China, Mongolia and south-eastern Russia, 3-4% in Portugal, 3% in Hungary, 1-2% in Turkey, and smaller numbers in ten other countries. The reliability of current censuses and estimates may be described as high for a large fraction of the world population (67-75%), and low for the remaining 25-33% (including Russia, Mongolia, China, Turkey, Ukraine, Iran and Kazakhstan). In spite of continued declines reported for some countries (e.g., Turkey, Iran, China), the present survey suggests that total numbers have not significantly decreased worldwide during the last decade, as opposed to the globally declining trend currently assumed. This is due to a large fraction of the world total living in countries whose overall surveys are apparently stable (e.g., Spain, Portugal), after a noticeable recovery during the last few decades once the hunting ban was established. Only 6-10% of the world total is apparently still decreasing, mostly due to agricultural intensification, other causes of habitat degradation, and locally, also illegal hunting and collision with power lines. A small fraction of the world population (3-4%), is clearly (Germany, Austria) or apparently (Hungary) increasing, due to management and conservation measures. Finally, 19-22% of the world total has an uncertain status, due to inaccurate current or past censuses which prevent establishing reliable population trends. We recommend 1) keeping conservation efforts and the species' protection status worldwide, and 2) carrying out urgently nation-wide surveys in countries with low quality estimates, in order to confirm world numbers and trends.

With the knowledge that cuckoos and cowbirds lay their eggs parasitically, and that some hosts eject parasitic eggs, ornithologists began to ponder the question of how host females discriminate between a foreign egg and their own eggs, wondering how hosts "know" which egg to remove. Results of one of the first uncontrolled experiments were inappropriately interpreted to imply ejection was based on discordancy, with hosts simply ejecting the egg in the minority, or the "odd-looking" egg. Controlled experiments eventually revealed that hosts first learn the appearance of own their eggs and discriminate between them and any odd egg in their nest, regardless of which egg type is in the minority. Recent work has shown that discordancy may play a role in discrimination by males mated successively with females that lay polymorphic eggs. We examine the details of the early experiments, in light of recent advances in studies of egg recognition. An ability to recognize eggs also has been extended, implicitly, to include obligate brood parasites, as it underlies several hypotheses in explanation of the behavior of parasites toward their hosts. Egg recognition in parasites, however, has not been experimentally confirmed, nor has a mechanism been identified by which parasites could discriminate between their own eggs and the other eggs in a nest. We review hypotheses (parasite competition, egg removal and multiple parasitism, mafia, farming) that require the ability of obligate brood parasites to discriminate eggs at different levels and the potential mechanisms used by parasites to recognize their own eggs and suggest experiments to test for egg discrimination. An assessment of the egg recognition ability of parasites is germane to our understanding of how parasites counteract defenses of hosts.

Given the rapid rise in human population and increasing urbanization,it is important to understand their potential impacts on biodiversity. From March 2007 to August 2007, we conducted bird surveys in 90 strip transects,each 3 km long and 100 m wide,along a gradient of urbanization in Hangzhou,China. This gradient spanned a range of urbanization levels including urban areas,rural-urban continuum areas,farming areas,mixed forest/farming areas and forested areas. We recorded 96 breeding bird species and classified them into nine functional groups based on nesting requirements. The nine functional groups consisted of canopy nesters,shrub nesters,canopy/shrub nesters,natural cavity nesters,building nesters,natural cavity/building nesters,ground nesters,water surface nesters and parasitic nesters. Species and functional diversities were estimated based on the Shannon-Wiener index. Environmental data of each transect as human disturbance,vegetation cover and building index were also measured,and a synthetic urbanization index of each transect was introduced based on these data. We used regression analyses to model the relationship of species abundance,species diversity,functional abundance and functional diversity with this synthetic index. The results show that urbanization significantly reduces species richness,species diversity,functional richness and functional diversity,but the specific patterns differed. The relationship between species abundance/species diversity and urbanization is linear. In contrast,the relationship between functional diversity and urbanization was quadratic. In other words,with increased urbanization,functional diversity declined only slightly at first but then dropped at an accelerating rate. This implies that,although moderate urbanization reduces species diversity of breeding birds,it affects functional diversity of breeding birds only slightly in Hangzhou. The regression analysis of species diversity and functional diversity suggests a quadratic relationship between species diversity and functional diversity,i.e.,a linear relationship between species diversity and functional diversity can only exist at low diversity levels across urbanization gradients and increasing species abundance does not lead to an increase in functional diversity at the highest diversity levels.

The winter diet and morphological structure of the gastrointestinal tract of the Golden Pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) was investigated in the Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province in 2002/2003. Individual food items in crops were identified by species, where possible, using standard taxonomic methods. The Golden Pheasant consumes exclusively vegetarian foods in the winter, of at least 14 plant species, such as crops and other vegetable species. The digestive tract of the Golden Pheasant is composed of an oesophagus, a stomach, a relatively long intestine measuring 3.4×standard body length, two fully-developed caeca and a relatively short colon, typical for herbivorous birds. Pebbles of different sizes (0.5-3 mm in diameter) were very frequent in the gizzard. The average dry weight of the pebbles was 10.4±2.5 g and was positively correlated with the weight of digesta in the gizzard (Pearson r=0.747, p < 0.01, n=37). The mucosa surface pH of the digestive tract of the Golden Pheasant was slightly acidic, but higher in the crop and gizzard.

The Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius) was recently categorized as Critically Endangered by the IUCN due to a strong decline and overall range contraction. Until now the only published Chinese record of the species was a vagrant sighting in 1998. We reviewed reports and historic literature from a German ornithological expedition in 1876, which reported the species to be a breeding bird in Xinjiang, western China in the second half of the 19th century. According to local expertise, the species seems since to have become extinct in Xinjiang, but surveys are suggested to clarify its current status.

Poyang Lake is a very important wintering place for cranes in China and East Asia. Two crane surveys were conducted at Poyang Lake during the 2011/2012 winter, the first on 18-19 December 2011 and the second on 18-19 February 2012. The survey covered the entire Poyang Lake basin, as well as two main lakes in Jiujiang (Saicheng Hu and Chi Hu), i.e., a total of 85 sub-lakes were surveyed. Both surveys recorded four species of cranes. The first survey on 18-19 December 2011 recorded 4577 Siberian Cranes (Grus leucogeranus), mostly in Bang Hu, Sha Hu and Dahu Chi, 302 Hooded Cranes (G. monacha), 885 White-naped Cranes (G. vipio) and 8408 Eurasian Cranes (G. grus), for the most part in the center of the lake basin. The second survey on 18-19 February 2012 recorded 3335 Siberian Cranes (mostly in Poyang Lake National Nature Reserve (PLNR) and its surrounding areas), 110 Hooded Cranes (largely in PLNR and its surrounding areas), 283 White-naped Cranes (86% in Bang Hu) and 2205 Eurasian Cranes (particularly in Duchang and Nanjishan NNR). The number of Siberian Cranes enumerated in December was 1000 more than the second count in February 2012. It is not possible to rule out double counting due to the close proximity of the main sites of the Siberian Cranes. During winters from 1998 to 2009, the average of the highest counts each winter was 3091, ranging from 2345 in 1996 to 4004 in 2002. By comparison with counts taken at other times, we therefore estimate a wintering population of Siberian Cranes of~3800-4000 at Poyang Lake. Additional evidence will be needed to raise the world population estimate. Our more recent surveys indicate a continuing decline in the number of White-naped Cranes and an increase in Eurasian Cranes.

Foraging ecology of the globally endangered Nilgiri Wood Pigeon (Columba elphinstonii) was investigated in the Western Ghats,India,using faecal sampling and direct observations. The birds fed on fruits of 39 plant species,on seeds of 11 species,flowers and leaf buds of four species and a few ground invertebrates. Direct observations across seasons showed nine plant species were selected more often (47% of observations),with fruits of the members of the family Lauraceae the most preferred. Gleaning accounted for 76% of feeding methods throughout the year. Feeding was mainly from twigs at the edges on the upper and middle canopy (> 6 m). Frequency of feeding on fruits correlated significantly with fruit abundance,which depended on rainfall. The present study indicates that the pigeon requires a wide variety of diets from different forest environments. Conservation of this species depends on preserving all habitat types required to meet their resource needs throughout the year.

The phylogeny of Paridae and allies has been studied intensively during past decades. However, the phylogenetic relationship among species tends to become increasingly controversial as different genetic markers emerge. In our study, the partial mitochondrial genes cytochrome b (cyt b) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit Ι (COI) were obtained from 15 species that included 10 tits, 4 long-tailed tits and a Chinese penduline tit. Analyses were conducted on the combined cyt b and COI sequences with maximum likelihood and Bayesian algorithms. Based on strong, congruent support among the different temporal partitions and models of sequence evolution, a highly resolved consensus of the relationships among Parids and their allies has been formed. The monophyly of Paridae and Remizidae is strongly supported. However, the monophyly of Paridae and Aegithalos is rejected. This agrees with previous studies using other molecular markers. Our results suggest the promotion of the subgenus Machlolophus from genus Parus to a separate genus. The phylogeny of Aegithalos is robust in the current study. However, by considering differences of both morphological and molecular characters within species, we conclude that more data are needed to define their phylogeny. Based on the patterns of taxonomic diversity and endemism, we suggest the southwestern mountain ranges of China might be the center of origin of the Aegithalos species. Divergence time estimates for the long-tailed tits range from the late Miocene to the Pleistocene (from 5.5 to 0.1 Mya) using a calibration of 2% divergence per million years. In a comparative sense, we found a congruent genetic differentiation among sympatric distribution taxa.

Over the last decade, molecular phylogenetic studies have provided the foundation for a comprehensive analysis of the global diversification of songbirds (Oscines), which comprise nearly half of all the birds of the world. By comparing the spatial distribution of species representing basal and terminal root-path groups, this paper provides graphical illustrations of the global pattern of diversification for the major songbird clades. The worldwide expansion of songbirds started as an island radiation in the area where New Guinea is now located, but the mountains of southern China represent a principal center for more recent diversification. The paper suggests priorities and perspectives for further research aiming to understand what determines the variation in biodiversity on different spatial scales.

The social organization of marked Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida meleagris) was studied in the Krugersdorp Game Reserve (Gauteng Province, South Africa) during March 1982 to February 1984. Flock members (7-10 guineafowl) did not associate randomly. Helmeted Guineafowl must live in a sociable flock to survive in the wild. The highest ranking male (male A) formed the pivot of the daily activities of the flock, such as determining foraging direction. High ranking males (males A and B) associated closely to repulse conspecific intruders. Breeding females associated more often with the high ranking males during the breeding season. Although a pecking order was established among males, the frequency of agonistic actions within the flock was very low, which suggests that agonistic interactions are limited to maintain cohesion. Adult females remained between the dominant male and the juveniles to minimize victimization. The second highest ranking male (B) took center stage while the dominant male and his female left temporarily to breed and then the rest of the flock clustered around him to maintain the cohesive nature of the flock. Most adults assisted with the brooding of the chicks of the highest ranking male. Flocking is, among other functions, a predator surveillance strategy that enables the Helmeted Guineafowl to forage under conditions with very limited ground cover and to maximize food finding during winter.

The Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus) is a national first grade protected species in China. So far, current knowledge of the Himalayan Monal in China is still poor. An estimate of its distribution, numbers and habitat was conducted during a two-year investigation from 2008 to 2009 in southern Tibet, especially in Lhozhag, Cona and Yadong counties. In total, 12 sightings of the Himalayan Monal were recorded during the study period. Our data suggest that this bird is mainly found in Medog, Zayu, Cona, Lhunze, Lhozhag, Nyalam, Dingjie, Gamba and Yadong counties on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Its western-most location was confirmed to be Nyalam County. The bird ranges in elevation from 3800 to 4300 m in the summer and from 3200 to 3500 m in the winter. We sighted 36–37 individual birds, consisting of 8–10 males, 16–20 females and 7–8 sub-adults inhabiting the area around the Kajiu Monastery in Lhozhag County. The birds are mainly found in rocky forests, interspersed with steep slopes, cliffs and alpine meadows at elevations between 3800 and 4000 m. The population density of the Himalayan Monal near the Kajiu Monastery is 2.03 individual birds per km², much larger than that of Yadong and Cona counties (0.052 individuals per km²).

With rapid urbanization occurring throughout China, the existence of Tree Sparrows (Passer montanus) in big cities is likely to be affected by a decrease in habitat and food availability. Can the urban Tree Sparrow adapt to these changes? To elucidate this question, we studied the effect of urbanization on the abundance and distribution of Tree Sparrows in Beijing. We found the abundance of the Tree Sparrow negatively correlated with an urbanization score. Sparrow abundance was very low in residential areas with high-rise buildings, commercial centers and main roads, while their numbers were significantly higher in parks, university campuses, low building residential and suburban areas. Environmental factors within the 50 m and 200 m scales were most suitable in predicting the distribution of Tree Sparrows during winter, while factors within 50 m and 400 m scales are suitable during the breeding season. During winter, the number of conifer trees and pedestrians were the major factors at the 50 m scale, while the area of high-rise buildings and vegetation become the predominant factors on a 200 m scale. Alternatively, during the breeding season the area of low buildings and the number of conifers and pedestrians were the main factors on the 50 m scale while the area of high-rise buildings and vegetation remained the most important factors on the 400 m scale. These results indicate that highly urbanized areas are not suitable habitats for the Tree Sparrow, although this species can adapt to human environments. Food and nest sites for urban birds should be considered in urban planning of big cities in developing countries.

Complete checklist records are essential to understand regional bird diversity and the status of the distribution of birds. The Zhejiang bird checklist was last presented as the Aves Branch of Zhejiang Fauna in 1990. Since then, many new records had been added, of which most remain unpublished. We have collected and examined all published and unpublished new records from Zhejiang habitats as well as those from the Aves Branch of Zhejiang Fauna. We have confirmed the evidence of the new records, which includes specimens, photographs, videos, sounds and tissue samples. We changed the Latin names of 131 species and subspecies and 41 Chinese names according to the new taxonomy and nomenclature. We provide an updated Zhejiang bird checklist for a total of 483 species and 24 subspecies, including 70 new species records, of which 47 species are reported for the first. Most of the new records are based on recent photographs taken by bird watchers.

The Hainan Peacock Pheasant (Polyplectron katsumatae), the smallest allied species of somber forest peacock pheasants among the taxa of Polyplectron spp., is a rare tropical forest bird endemic to China, and distributed only in the mountainous region of central and southwestern Hainan Island dominated by evergreen broadleaf forests. By integrating references and unpublished data based on our field surveys, we presented information on species status, distribution and population, habitat and home range, breeding ecology and conservation of the Hainan Peacock Pheasant. Future investigation should focus on its life history traits in relation to vulnerability. Considering its limited distribution and small population size, it has recently been recognized as "Endangered" by the IUCN Red List to prevent loss of this island endemic.

The taxonomic status of the Sulawesi endemic Geomalia heinrichi has long been debated, and it has variously been treated as a babbler (Timaliidae) or a turdid (Turdidae). We estimated the phylogeny of 43 taxa in the family Turdidae based on the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and the nuclear myoglobin intron 2 and ornithine decarboxylase introns 6-7. Geomalia heinrichi was shown to be part of the Zoothera clade with high support. We propose that Geomalia is transferred to Zoothera under the name Zoothera heinrichi.

Agricultural landscapes are essential for the conservation of biodiversity. Nevertheless, a negative trend continues to be observed in many rural areas for the most prominent indicator species group, the farmland birds. However, clear cause-effect relationships are rarely reported and sometimes difficult to deduce, especially from monitoring data which are based only on the detection of species and counts of the numbers of individuals. Because the identification of habitat preferences is a precondition for farmland bird biodiversity conservation efforts, a monitoring scheme for the simultaneous collection and analysis of bird and land use data was developed and tested. In order to assign the occurrence of bird species to land characteristics at various spatial scales and different land use and crop types, we applied a hierarchical structured sampling design. The spatial scales were 'agri-cultural landscape', 'agricultural landscape types', 'field crops and other habitats' and 'vegetation structures'. These scales were integrated with a novel concept, the 'habitat matrix' (HM). This method was applied to farmland breeding bird abundances on 29 plots, each 1 km² in size, by the use of the territory mapping method. The same plots were enlarged by a 100 m buffer and the sizes and location of habitats documented. Vegetation height, coverage and density were also recorded for all crop fields in the study area. We propose that this monitoring method facilitates the identification of scale dependent relationships between farmland bird habitat characteristics and bird abundance. This is demonstrated by the farmland bird species Corn Bunting (Emberiza calandra), Skylark (Alauda arvensis), and Whinchat (Saxicola rubetra). The breeding territories of these species reveal large differences within the various spatial scales 'agricultural landscape', 'agricultural landscape types' and 'field crops'. Throughout the breeding season the abundances varied, dependent on the field crop and the development of vegetation structures (height, coverage, and density). HM-analysis led to the identification of specific habitat configurations preferred by individual bird species within the agricultural landscape. These findings indicate that the methodology has the potential to design monitoring schemes for the identification of cause-and-effects of landscape configuration, land use and land use changes on the habitat suitability and abundance of farmland birds.

The Daurian Partridge (Perdix dauuricae) is a kind of hunting bird with high economic value. Genetic diversity and structure in the Daurian Partridge were studied by analyzing eight microsatellite loci in 23 populations found throughout the range of the species in China. The objectives were to evaluate the consequences on genetic diversity and differentiation of Daurian Partridge populations and to obtain a profound genetic insight for future management decisions and for effective measures to protect and exploit Daurian Partridges. The results showed that microsatellites were polymorphic in all Daurian Partridge populations, with a high level of genetic diversity over all the loci, especially in the Qaidam Basin populations which have the highest level of diversity. Significant genetic divergence was observed among different groups as well as between populations within the same group; most pairwise F_ST values were highly significant. Both phylogenetic trees and Bayesian clustering analyses revealed clear differentiation among the 23 populations of the Daurian Partridge, which were classified into two genetically differentiated groups. A bottleneck analysis indicated that Daurian Partridge populations have experienced a recent bottleneck. Our study argues that the Qaidam populations, North China populations, JN population, ZJC population, and Liupan Mountain populations should be paid special attention in order to retain adequate population sizes for maintaining genetic diversity.

The Spot-billed Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), a near threatened bird and one of eight pelican species in the world, can be found only in South and Southeast Asia over an area between 129000 and 181000 km² with strongholds in India, Sri Lanka, southern Cambodia and coastal areas of Sumatra. In India, it is presently distributed in southern and northeastern India with concentrations in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Assam states. An ethogram of the Spot-billed Pelican was presented and as many as 25 individual behaviors grouped under nine different categories were described: resting, alert, comfort/maintenance, locomotion, foraging, antagonistic, sexual, chick care and foraging, and vocalizations. Descriptions of behaviors of the Spot-billed Pelican in this paper would be immensely useful while preparing conservation and management plan for the species present both in the captive and wild condition.

Changes in the areas and quality of wetland habitat makes it imperative to monitor trends in the number of wintering waterbirds and their distribution in the Yangtze River floodplain, the most important waterbird region in eastern China, so that effective science-based action can be taken to ensure the survival and future recovery of the waterbirds of the region. However, obtaining accurate data on the number of waterbirds and distribution, which can be confidently compared across years and sites, is complicated by a number of factors which can affect count quality. It is essential to employ a survey methodology which maximizes count accuracy and precision and minimizes the bias inherent in counting waterbirds; failure to achieve these goals will lead to incorrect results and analytical problems. Recently we developed a systematic waterbird survey methodology which was tested, with promising results, in the winters of 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 at Shengjin Lake, an important wetland in the Yangtze River floodplain. The methodology involves dividing the lake into discrete survey areas, each containing a number of subareas, with clear boundaries, which were surveyed separately. Data, which included information on counts, distributions, the environment and disturbance, were collected in a standardized manner to maximize precision and minimize bias. We use the results from the surveys of the first two winters to provide examples of how the data can be employed to provide detailed information on the number of waterbirds, their distributions and habitat usage. Finally, we discuss the importance of wider application of the methodology throughout the Yangtze River floodplain to underpin a much needed floodplain-wide waterbird monitoring program.

The Xinjiang Ground Jay (Podoces biddulphi) is a bird species endemic to China. It has a restricted range, living only in the Taklimakan Desert, southern part of Xinjiang. So far, little information has been known of the status and ecology of the bird in the world. Since 1988, I have been taking field investigations on the distribution, population size and breeding ecology of the Xinjiang Ground Jay in the desert. In this thesis, the desertification in relation to the eastward expansion of the ground jays was discussed.

Common Cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) parasitize nests of small passerines. The Cuckoo chicks cause the death of their nest-mates when evicting eggs or nestlings from the nests; consequently, hosts suffer from a high loss of reproduction. Host adaptations against parasitism, e.g., by egg discrimination behavior, and cuckoo counter-adaptations to hosts, e.g., by mimetic eggs, are often regarded as a result of the arms race between the two interacting species. In Hungary Great Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus arundinaceus) are the main hosts of cuckoos, suffering from heavy parasitism (ca. 40-65%). The Oriental Reed Warbler (A. orientalis), formerly a subspecies of the Great Reed Warbler (A. a. orientalis), is also a highly parasitized host in Japan (25-40%). We compared main characteristics of Cuckoo parasitism in these two distant areas from the Western and Eastern Palearctic by comparing cuckoo egg mimicry. We measured color characteristics of host and parasitic eggs by spectrophotometer. Visual modeling revealed lower chromatic distances between Cuckoo and host eggs in Hungary than in Japan, but high variation both in host and Cuckoo eggs may cause matching problems in Hungary. Achromatic (brightness) difference between host and Cuckoo eggs were lower in Japan than in Hungary, and it proved to be the most important factor affecting egg rejection. Hosts rejected Cuckoo eggs at similar frequencies (37% and 35% in Hungary and Japan, respectively). Host adaptation, i.e., egg rejection behavior, seems to be preceding Cuckoo counter-adaptations to hosts in Japan. We suggest that the Cuckoo-Great/Oriental Reed Warbler relationships developed in alternative ways in Japan and Hungary, and they represent different stages of their arms race.

The loss and degradation of wetlands have adversely affected waterbirds, which depend on wetland habitats. Interspecific competition has an important effect on habitat utilization of wintering waterbirds. Resource utilization, including partitioning, in degraded wetlands has become a hot issue in ecological studies of wintering waterbirds. In order to have an insight into the habitat utilization and resource partitioning between a Hooded Crane (Grus monacha) population and the guild of three goose species, i.e., Anser fabalis, A. albifrons and A. erythropus wintering in lake wetlands, we carried out a study at Shengjin Lake National Nature Reserve from November 2011 to April 2012. We surveyed the Hooded Cranes and goose guild foraging in various habitats during the wintering periods with a combined method of fixed route searching and fixed site observations. Resource partitioning was studied by means of calculating habitat utilization rates and the width and overlap of spatial niches. The results showed that the habitat utilization rate and the width of spatial niches of the Hooded Crane population and goose guild shifted with the season. The habitat utilization rates of the cranes in grasslands were high at all three wintering stages. The habitat utilization rates were 0.454, 0.435 and 0.959 respectively for the Hooded Cranes and 0.627, 0.491 and 0.616 for the goose guild. This suggests that the overlap in grasslands was higher between cranes and goose guild. Most habitats were accessible at the middle stage, so the width of the spatial niche of the cranes (1.099) and goose guild (1.133) both reached their peak at this stage. The greatest niche overlap was 0.914 for these two groups at the late stage, followed by 0.906 at the middle stage and the smallest was 0.854 at the early stage. Ecological response to the changes in habitats of wintering waterbirds was clearly shown in the dynamic variations of the niche of both the Hooded Cranes and the three goose species. Coexistence among waterbirds was achieved by regulation of niche width to reduce niche overlap and relieve interspecific resource partitioning.

Members of the passerine family Sylviidae are distributed widely around the Old World and the phylogenetic relationships of many species still remain controversial. In this study, we investigated the phylogeny and relationships among 37 species of 11 genera by analyzing DNA sequences obtained from the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) and partial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) genes. The data were analyzed by maximum-likelihood analysis and Bayesian inference. The results demonstrate that the current genus Phylloscopus is non-monophyletic, while Seicercus is synonymized with Phylloscopus or is a group within the genus Phylloscopus. We may conclude that within Phylloscopus there are close relations between P. magnirostris and P. borealis; among P. proregulus, P. yunnanensis, P. pulcher and P. maculipennis, as well as among P. occisinensis, P. schwarzi, P. armandii, P. collybita and P. fuscatus. Monophyly of the genus Cettia could not be corroborated; it is closely related to the genera Abroscopus and Tesia. However monophyly of Acrocephalus is supported. Furthermore, the close relationships between Sylvia and Zosterops and among Prinia, Orthotomus and Cisticola are also supported.

We investigated the water-crossing behavior of Western Marsh Harriers (Circus aeruginosus), mostly adults, and European Honey Buzzards (Pernis apivorus), mostly juveniles, in relation to wind conditions, time of the day, flocking and age classes, at a watchsite in central Italy during the autumn migration en route to Africa. Although European Honey Buzzards are less suited than Western Marsh Harriers to undertake long sea crossings, they were more inclined to leave the coast when migrating in flocks. Few birds of both species chose to fly along the coast. Western Marsh Harriers, such as European Honey Buzzards migrating alone, undertook the water crossing rather than stopping migration (birds roosting at the site or flying back inland) during the absence of wind and vice versa during head winds. Conversely, European Honey Buzzards migrating in flocks were not affected in their decision (crossing or stopping migration) by wind direction. Both species undertook the water crossing rather than stopping migration during mornings and vice versa during afternoons. Finally, in both species, adults and juveniles showed the same behavior in front of a water barrier. This result was expected in the case of the Western Marsh Harrier but not from the European Honey Buzzard since, in this species, the water-crossing tendency is age dependent with adults avoiding sea crossings. Our study confirms that flocking significantly affects the water-crossing behavior of European Honey Buzzards during migration. Moreover, in this species, inexperience of juveniles and presumably younger adults, about the high energetic costs of long powered flight and about the existence of shorter routes over water, might explain the strong water-crossing tendency shown by migrants independently from their age.

This paper provides the information on nesting biology of 20 bird species in alpine shrub (4000–4700 m a.s.l.) or alpine meadow-wasteland habitats (4300–4700 m a.s.l.) in Lhasa region, Tibet. Of these species, three are endemic to the Tibetan plateau and 17 widespread in altitudes. The data on these taxa are all new to the high-altitude environments, especially the upper limit of their breeding distribution. A few species are firstly reported with respect to nesting information in the world. The study will contribute our knowledge for natural history of birds occurring in the harsh, extreme habitats.

Wintering waterbirds surveys were conducted throughout the coastal areas of Hainan, China, from 2003 to 2005, with the aim of further strengthening the conservation and management of wetlands in Hainan Island. A total of 68 species were recorded at 20 coastal wetlands. Three recently found wintering sites for the globally endangered Black-faced Spoonbill (Platalea minor), i.e. Houshui Bay of Lingao, Beili Bay of Dongfang Counties and Sanya River in Sanya City were then extensively monitored during a period of 2003-2009. The largest number of birds were egrets and herons, followed by shorebirds, gulls and terns. On average, the total number of species and individuals at sites with mangrove forests were significantly greater than those of sites without mangrove forests. Some sites, important for conservation, were identified, such as Bopu Bay, Huanglonggang, Houshui Bay, Yangpugang, Beili Bay, Yinggehai, Sanya River, Qinlangang and Dongzhaigang. Thus, human disturbance at these important sites should be avoided.

The Chinese Bamboo Partridge (Bambusicola thoracica) is a gamebird endemic to China. Ten polymorphic microsatellite (simple sequence repeat) markers were obtained through cross-species amplification for this partridge from its relative species Gallus gallus. The number of alleles per locus varied from 4 to 13. The observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.1220 to 1.0000 and the expected heterozygosity from 0.1183 to 0.8898. Four microsatellite loci showed significant differences from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. These polymorphic loci provide a valuable tool for the investigation of the phylogeography and conservation genetics of this partridge.

Barn Owl (Tyto alba) pellets were collected from nine locations and two districts of Sindh, Pakistan and 937 prey items were recovered from 619 pellets. Rats/mice (59.6%) were the most dominant food items consumed by the Barn Owl. Shrews (22.3%), bats (1.3%), birds (12.0%), insects (1.3%), frogs (2.2%) and plant materials (1.3%) were found in their diet as well. Study of the pelvic girdle bones of rats/mice, used only for sexing, proved to be a useful device in population dynamics. In the pelvic bone, pelvic symphysis is found only in female rats/mice developed as a result of sex hormones that occur during gestation. Among the diet of rats/mice, males were found to be significantly dominant. Tooth wear patterns on the occlusal surfaces of molariform teeth of the rats/mice were found to provide an effective criterion for establishing age classes of rats/mice. In the present study, adult rats/mice were found to be dominant over sub-adults and old adults. ANOVA showed significant differences in the number of rats/mice and shrews (prey items) and the other prey items/plant materials in the diet of Barn Owls in the district Thatta and district Karachi. Chi-square test disclosed non-significant differences in age and sex categories.

Migratory birds are known to use a number of different orientation cues to determine and maintain the direction of their movements. They are able to use at least three different sources of compass information, including solar, stellar and geomagnetic cues. However, little is known about how these cues are calibrated into uniform reference direction information, while the hierarchy of these cues remains controversial. In recent studies, researchers suggest that avian migrants calibrate their geomagnetic compass on sunset cues, whereas others fail to find such patterns and insist on the prevalence of the magnetic compass. We carefully reviewed the existing literature and suggest that the conflicting results reported by different authors are due to genuine variation among species and propose hypotheses to explain this variation.

The breeding biology of the Spot-billed Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) was investigated from September 2007 to September 2010 in Karaivetti Lake, Tamil Nadu, India. The Spot-billed Pelican breeds between November and April at the Karaivetti Lake. It also breeds roughly during the same period at other breeding sites in Tamil Nadu, except for the Vedanthangal and Karikili bird sanctuaries, where pelicans arrives much earlier and their breeding activities start and end to some extent ahead of the other sites, i.e., from September to March. In essence, the breeding season starts after the onset of the northeast monsoon in Tamil Nadu. A few days after their arrival, pelicans perform courtship display, form pairs, start nest construction and lay eggs. Courtship display is not as attractive and impressive as in other waterbirds. The clutch size varies from two to three eggs and the incubation period from 25 to 36 days. The fledging period varies from a minimum of 90 to a maximum of 102 days. The nest success rate of the Spot-billed Pelican at Karaivetti was 90.28% during the study period.

The Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) is an endemic species of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, with its population in Xinjiang largely found in the Kunlun and Altun mountain regions. A survey of the distribution, population dynamics, flock size and behavior was conducted in Altun Mountain National Natural Reserve from September to November 2011. We investigated the size and distribution of its population in this area with a sample spot survey and by direct counting. We found Black-necked Cranes on the wetlands of Wuzunxiaoer, Yusup Aleksei, Yaziquan, Qimantag, Tula Ranch and elsewhere, where we recorded 126 individual birds of the species in Yixiekepati (37° 15'-37°23'N, 90°11'-90°20'E, elevation 3903 m), the largest population we have observed in this area. In the reserve, the population consists of about 180-200 birds. Combined with previous records, we conclude that more than 260 Black-necked Cranes live in Xinjiang. Cranes gathered conspicuously in the middle of October where the highest number of birds appeared on 29 October. All of the cranes had migrated out of this area by 6 November. Time budgets and diurnal behavior rhythms of Blacknecked Cranes were observed in the Yixiekepati wetland at daylight (from 06:00 to 18:00). Foraging was the most prevalent type of behavior during the autumn period, accounting for 58.9% of the diurnal time budget, followed by preening (13.2%), vigilance (9.5%), walking (8.2%), flying (3.5%), resting (3.4%), chirping (2.7%) and other types of behavior (0.6%).

The main purpose of this study was to describe the intrinsic (breeding) and extrinsic factors (rainfall/vegetation) that might trigger movements of Double-banded Sandgrouse (Pterocles bicinctus) in Borakalalo National Park, South Africa. The park is situated 80 km north of Pretoria and 30 km north of Jericho in the North West province. Data collection was based on traversing the reserve for two days per month along a set route (32 km) with a vehicle at 10 km·h^-1 during 2010. The mean group size of this Double-banded Sandgrouse was 2.47. The male to female ratio in the population was 1:0.87. They were often observed in the road, on short trampled grass or in burnt thornvelds with green sprouts. Double-banded Sandgrouse were mainly present in the reserve during two relatively dry periods, from February-March and again from July-September 2010. They were and again from July-September 2010. They were 2010. They were more regularly observed in the hinterland of the park in the mornings and conversely, during the late afternoons they were more regularly observed closer to the edge of the Klipvoor Dam. Five possible reasons are discussed that may affect the movement of the Double-banded Sandgrouse: annual rainfall, short spells of high/low rainfall periods within the rainy season, daily flights of 2-4 km to drink water, breeding and veld conditions.

Jankowski's Bunting (Emberiza jankowskii) is a small bird with narrow distribution ranges. It has experienced a drastic population decline during recent years and vanished from most of its historic breeding sites. It has been recently up-graded as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of globally threatened species. By integrating unpublished data of field surveys conducted by us and published information on the species, we provide information on the status of distribution, breeding biology of the remaining population at the Dagang Forest Farm, population trends at currently known breeding sites, selection of breeding habitats and threats faced by the Jankowski's Bunting. In light of its current status we also suggest ways and future research work related to protecting this bird species.

Generalist mammalian predators hunt for prey in different ways than raptors, often relying on ambush attack. Such differences in predator behavior can have profound effects on susceptibility of different species of prey to predation, but can also modify the behavior of prey. We investigated susceptibility of common birds to predation by domestic cats Felis catus, relying on an extensive data set on prey abundance and prey availability as determined by standardized bird counts. Susceptibility to cat predation for different species of birds was not significantly correlated with susceptibility to predation by sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, but with susceptibility to goshawk Accipiter gentilis predation. Susceptibility to goshawk predation was independently predicted by susceptibility to cat and sparrowhawk predation. We cross-validated our estimate of susceptibility to cat predation by showing that the frequency of birds with tail loss increased strongly with susceptibility to cat predation. Male birds were disproportionately preyed upon, especially if having song posts low in the vegetation, and if having short flight distances when singing. Colonially breeding species were less susceptible to predation than solitary species. Bird species with high levels of innate immune defense against bacterial infections had high susceptibility to cat predation. These findings suggest that predation by cats has been an important selection pressure affecting anti-predation behavior, sexual display and immune function in common birds.

Polymorphic microsatellites are among the versatile genetic markers in molecular ecology studies. In contrast to de novo isolation of microsatellites from target species, cross-species amplification is a cost-effective approach for a fast development of microsatellite markers from closely related taxa. In our study, we cross-amplified a panel of polymorphic microsatellite markers for the Blue Eared Pheasant (Crossoptilon auritum), a species endemic to China of considerable conservation concern. We obtained 11 polymorphic microsatellite markers selected from 112 candidate loci, originally isolated from other Galliforme species. This panel of makers has shown moderate to high levels of polymorphism and include a Z-chromosomal linkage locus. We carried out preliminary analyses of parentage among captive individuals with a known pedigree using this new panel of microsatellites. Our results suggest that the high utility of these markers may be powerful tools for studies in conservation genetics of eared-pheasants and other endangered Galliforme species.

Environmental factors affect animal behavior in a variety of ways. Compared to animals in the wild, captive animals are kept in narrow enclosures, suffer higher densities and are more intensely affected by human activities. Therefore, behavioral elasticity is likely modified to some extent in captive animals, which may negatively affect the possibility of successful release of endangered species in the wild. In our study we investigated the behaviors of the Oriental White Stork (Ciconia boyciana) in a semi-natural enclosure from 15 October 2005 to 8 September 2006 in Hefei Wildlife Park, China. The behavioral data were collected by instantaneous and scan sampling methods, and we analyzed the relationships between environmental factors and their behaviors. The amounts of time spent on maintenance behavior (foraging and moving) were at similar levels for birds reproducing multibroods (Group 1), birds reproducing one brood (Group 2) and birds without reproduction (Group 3). On the other hand, the amount of time spent on elastic behavior (defensive, breeding and preening) for Group 3 was lower than that for Groups 1 and 2. The behavioral pattern of the storks exhibited marked seasonal changes, which may be a function of ambient temperature, human disturbanc, and the length of daylight, but not of wind intensity. Our results provide basic data for future conservation measures of this endangered species.

The resemblance of some parasitic cuckoos to Accipiter hawks has been known since ancient times. Recent experiments show that the hawk-like features of Common Cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) facilitate access to Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) host nests. However, social information alerts hosts to see through the cuckoo's mimetic disguise. In turn, this has promoted the evolution of a cuckoo polymorphism to thwart host recognition. Here we show by comparative analyses that parasitic cuckoos with hawk-like features (yellow eyes, barred underparts, yellow legs) are more likely to be polymorphic (29% of species) than those without (8% of species). Phylogenetic analyses confirm correlated evolution of hawk-like features and cuckoo polymorphism. We suggest that mimicry dynamics are particularly likely to promote the evolution of various guises in parasitic cuckoos to beat host defences.

There is a lack of information of whether the behavior pattern and physical condition of the Hooded Crane (Grus monacha) have been limited by conditions encountered at stopover sites in Changgou village, which is adjacent to Zhalong Nature Reserve in northeastern China, one of the most important stopover sites of this crane. The objective of our research was to investigate the impact of human-caused disturbances on the Hooded Cranes. We investigated three behavior activities of the Hooded Cranes, i.e., flying time, flushing distance and the duration of vigilance. The results indicate that the auditory stimuli caused by local people provoked the most pronounced disturbances to the Hooded Crane. Human-caused disturbances not only frequently interrupt the feeding process of the cranes, but also lead to an increase of 200% in the duration of their vigilance and a significant increase in flying time from 0.4 to 0.7 h (p < 0.05). In addition, high-intensity noise can cause larger flushing distances; foraging cranes will flush away by about 600 m when disturbed by the honking of vehicles. Whistles or shouts by local farmers in the field generated the largest sound intensity, about 120 dB, which caused a flushing distance of over 700 m. In order to reduce the negative effect of human-caused disturbances on these cranes, it is imperative to define a buffer zone around sensitive areas during the fall stopover period. To solve the conflict between the interest of farmers and the demand for crops on the part of the cranes requires financial compensation to the farmers for the crops consumed by the Hooded Crane in order to enhance the conservation of this vulnerable bird species.

The limestone area located in southwestern Guangxi in the south of China is part of a global biodiversity hotspot. As an important habitat of this limestone region, karst wetlands provide birds with necessary water conditions for their survival and reproduction. From 2007 to 2012, bird surveys were conducted in natural wetlands (pools, streams, springs and seasonal flows) in 14 nature reserves and 18 reservoirs in the limestone area of southwestern Guangxi. A total of 365 bird species were recorded in field investigations, including 103 water-dependent birds mainly seen in wetlands. Among these 103 birds, 10 species are globally threatened and 5 species have been placed under national key protection. The birds were selective in their use of the various types of karst wetlands. The number of bird species was the highest in pools and springs, with 304 and 266 respectively, followed by streams with 131 species. Reservoirs are the main wintering habitat for the large Natatores and in the rainy season the importance of seasonal flows is paramount. Seasonal changes in the utilization of karst wetlands by birds were obvious; the number of bird species in the dry season was much higher than during the rainy season. Bird migration and seasonal flows are the main reasons for seasonal variation in the number of water-dependent birds. These natural karst wetlands ensure the drinking water supply for more than 80% of the water-independent birds in the dry season. These karst wetlands are the wintering ground and stopover area for 58 species of migrant birds. At present, threats to the birds in the karst wetlands consist of illegal hunting, habitat changes and eucalyptus plantations. Karst wetlands are important for protecting biodiversity. More attention ought to be directed to these wetlands and protection efforts enhanced.

Buddhism and local cultural traditions have long protected wildlife species and their habitats in Tibetan-dominated areas of western Sichuan. In Daocheng County, the White Earedpheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon) has been afforded special protection by local people because it is conspicuous and white, a color with special symbolism for Buddhists. This and other cultural reasons have led to pheasants and forests benefiting in some areas. Pheasants were found during surveys between January 2003 and June 2004 in forests with varying degrees of local (non-formal) protection. However, there were significant signs that these traditional attitudes were changing in the face of three particular pressures brought to bear by better roads, improving access to and from the rest of China. The first was the development of a significant local demand for the Chinese caterpillar fungus (Cordyceps sinesis), which is much sought after throughout East Asia and mushrooms. Second, and more recent, is a dramatic increase in tourism from major Chinese cities, bringing non-Tibetan values into Daocheng County and changing the local attitudes to all animals. And then, there is a rise in income of the local population, resulting in a higher timber demand for building big houses, which impact all wildlife in the forest, but local attitudes to sacred forests have been retained so far in spite of this increased timber demand. Lessons should be learnt from the impact that unregulated tourism at Chonggu monastery, the most visited area in the county, has on the surrounding forests so that other sacred and non-sacred forests can best be protected for the long term. The alternative is that several Tibetan Plateau Galliformes, currently considered non-threatened because of their extensive distribution in a remote area, cannot be guaranteed such a healthy future.

The Hooded Crane (Grus monacha) is a waterbird wintering in the wetlands of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, China. The gradual habitat loss resulting from wetland degradation may have posed negative effects on the structure of our wintering populations. For its effective protection, it is important to conduct an intensive study on the genetic structure of this population. A total of 221 faecal samples, nine feather samples and four muscle samples of Hooded Cranes from four wintering populations, i.e., from Caizi Lake and Shengjin Lake in Anhui, Poyang Lake in Jiangxi and Chongming Dongtan in Shanghai, were collected for this study. Full-length 1103-1104 bp mtDNA D-loop sequences from 72 samples were amplified using PCR. Based on our amplified D-loop sequences and the sequences of two individual birds obtained from GenBank (AB017625 and AB023813), we analyzed the genetic structure of these four wintering Hooded Crane populations. Twenty six variable sites were found among 72 target sequences in the four wintering populations and 23 haplotypes were defined. Genetic diversity analyses showed that the haplotype diversity of Hooded Cranes was 0.823±0.042 with a nucleotide diversity of 0.00157±0.00021. The F_ST values of the four populations show that there is no significant genetic differentiation among the populations of Hooded Cranes wintering in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Tajima's D and Fu's tests suggest that the Hooded Crane populations may have experienced population expansion in their evolutionary history.

A survey of Ardeid nesting colonies in central Guizhou, southwestern China in May 2006, which covered about one-third of the area of this province, recorded a total of 1587 nests of five species, i.e., Little Egret (Egretta garzetta), Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis), Chinese Pond Heron (Ardeola bacchus), Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) and Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) at 11 nesting colonies. The largest colonies were recorded at Fengyunyan and Yanfu resorts, the smallest one at Luobolin. The Little Egret was the dominant nesting species (49.7% of the total number of nests) and the Grey Heron was the least abundant (0.1%). All nesting colonies were located in the northern and central parts of Guizhou; no colonies were found in the Leigongshan area, the southern part of this province. The distribution of nesting colonies in central Guizhou appears to be affected by the relative composition of winter (wheat and vegetable) and summer (rice) crops during the breeding season (between late March and June). No colonies were found around farmlands with winter crops and most colonies were situated around rice paddies. The farmland use pattern is affected by rainfall. The summer crop is delayed if the rainy season starts late and the rainfall is light. Priority for conservation of the Ardeids in central Guizhou should be given to the larger colonies i.e., Yanfu and Fengyunyan resorts.

The Chinese Grouse (Bonasa sewerzowi) is a bird endemic to China, inhabiting the conifer-dominated high mountains. It occurs in the most southern range of grouse and is the smallest grouse species in the world. The Chinese Grouse has been listed as an endangered species by the China Red Data Book and placed in Category Ⅰ of nationally protected animals. Since 1995, we have systematically conducted work on the Chinese Grouse using radiotelemetry techniques at the Lianhuashan Nature Reserve in Gansu Province, western China. In this presentation we summarize the mating behavior, nest site selection, incubation rhythm, winter social behavior, diet and other natural history characteristics of this species. With the aid of landscape ecological methods, we also analyze the condition of habitat fragmentation and propose suggestions for conservation.

We studied the food habits and prey spectrum of the Spotted Owlet (Athene brama) in Madurai District, Tamil Nadu, southern India, between 2007 and 2009 by analyzing their regurgitated pellets. A total of 4181 pellets were analyzed and 40278 individual prey remains of 16 prey species recorded. The number of prey items per pellet varied from 1 to 31 with an overall mean prey of 9.6 ± 3.03. Our analysis revealed that invertebrates were the predominant prey (insecta 83.0%; arachnida 1.1%; myriapoda 0.2%) followed by vertebrates (reptiles 3.3%; mammals 2.9%). Mammalian prey species in the diet included Mus spp., Rattus rattus, Suncus murinus, Tatera indica, Bandicota bengalensis and micro chiropteran bats.

The coast of Zhejiang Province has the largest number of islands in China and include some of the more important breeding sites for several seabird species. However, for a long time, there has been no information on the diversity and distribution of species of breeding seabirds on these islands. During the 2003 to 2006 breeding seasons we carried out surveys along the Zhejiang coast on species diversity, population size, distribution of and threats to breeding seabirds. Our results discovered six species, i.e., the Black-tailed Gull (Larus crassirostris), the Greater Crested Tern (Thalasseus bergii), the Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii), the Black-naped Tern (Sterna sumatrana), the Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus) and the Chinese Crested Tern (Thalasseus bernsteini) and a total of 49 colonies breeding on 28 islands. The Jiushan, Zhongjieshan, Beiji, Wuzhishan, Yushan and Taizhou archipelagos hosted the most important sites for breeding seabirds along the Zhejiang coast. At present, most of the islands where seabirds breed are still unprotected. Conservation of breeding sites of seabirds along the Zhejiang coast and throughout China must be strengthened in the future.

With the support of the UNEP/GEF Siberian Crane Wetland Project, a five-year field survey of breeding waterbirds was conducted in four nature reserves-Zhalong, Keerqin, Xianghai and Momoge National Nature Reserves in the Songnen Plain for the period from May 2004 to August 2008. The purpose of the survey was to improve our understanding of the distribution and populations of breeding waterbirds in this area. The Red-crowned Crane (Grus japonensis) was the most important target species. Our survey results confirm that the Zhalong wetland is the largest breeding ground for the Red-crowned cranes in the Songnen Plain. Over 90% of the breeding birds were found in Zhalong, with numbers fluctuating from 112 to 275 over the years. Reed (Phragmites australis) is the most important plant species associated with breeding locations of this bird species. Water supply to the wetland can relieve pressure from deterioration of wetland habitats for the breeding of Red-crowned cranes. However, a sound scientific basis for the water supply mechanism is the key to better management of their habitat and a prerequisite for ensuring the breeding success of the Red-crowned Crane.

The Malayan Night Heron (Gorsachius melanolophus) inhabits a range of tropical and subtropical zones in South, Southeast and East Asia. As this heron breeds singularly in dense forests, its detailed ecology is not well known and only piecemeal information on its diet is available. Thus, we quantitatively estimated its diet menu with an analysis of pellets and stomach contents in the subtropical Yaeyama Islands of southern Japan. The results showed that the heron frequently foraged on land snails, arachnids, freshwater crabs and insects; no fish were detected. Although the earthworm was believed to be a primary dietary source of this species, it was not detected in our results, as it does not remain in pellets due to its high digestibility. This indicated that this bird dominantly depends on soil animals that inhabit humid forest floors. While the heron does not directly utilize aquatic habitats, they likely prefer moist forests caused by watery environments such as streams and swamps. Wet forests should be conserved for maintaining populations of this heron species.

The Three-toed Woodpecker subspecies Picoides tridactylus funebris is endemic to the Qinghai-Tibet plateau in China. No part of its life history was ever reported since its discovery in 1870. To close this gap, we observed foraging behavior of a pair between April and August 2007. A total of 117 observations (28 for male and 89 for female) were obtained by following the birds within their home-ranges using radio-tracking. P. t. funebris preferred foraging on live spruces and snags bigger than available with an average diameter of breast height (DBH) of 32.7±9.2 cm. The most frequent foraging technique was pecking (39.8% of foraging time) and peeling (13.2%). Moreover, sap-sucking was observed more often in P. t. funebris than in P. t. alpinus, suggesting that P. t. funebris was more dependent on the tree sap than the other subspecies. We found distinct niche partitioning between the sexes with respect to use of three out of four investigated parameters of the foraging substrates. These differences were likely related to sexual dimorphism pronounced by slightly larger bill of the male. We concluded that the subspecies P. t. funebris displayed foraging behavior which was very similar to that of other subspecies of the Three-toed Woodpecker.

We measured the concentrations of heavy metal elements, i.e., V, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Se and Pb and the semi-metal element As in feces of Chinese Egret (Egretta eulophotes) on Caiyu Island in Zhangpu County, Fujian Province, China using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and compared the differences between the topsoil of their nesting and non-nesting areas before and after breeding. The results show that no Se and Cd was detected in any of the samples, including feces and soil, while heavy metal concentrations in the non-nesting soil were not significantly different before and after breeding (p > 0.05), but the differences in concentrations of Zn and Pb in the nesting soil were highly significant before and after breeding (p < 0.01). A comparison of the concentrations of the elements in the nesting and non-nesting soils also reveals that before breeding, the concentration of Zn in these two soils were significantly different (p < 0.01). After breeding, concentrations of Cu, Zn, As and Pb in the nesting and nonnesting soil were significantly different (p < 0.01) while V and Ni concentrations showed merely significant differences (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that the colonial breeding activities of E. eulophotes play an important role in the transfer of heavy metals between wetland and island ecosystems and that such activities may, over time, result in heavy metal contamination of the heronry soil on the island.

The Oriental White Stork (Ciconia boyciana) is a large and endangered waterbird in East Asia. Research on conservation genetics of this species is urgently needed. In this study, microsatellite marking technology was used for screening and analysis of genetic diversity of microsatellite markers in Oriental White Storks. A total of 36 pairs of microsatellite primers were used, of which 7 pairs came from Ciconia ciconia, 12 pairs from Nipponia nippon and 17 pairs from Ardea herodias. Microsatellite loci were screened from 23 individuals of the Oriental White Stork and 11 microsatellite loci were found with high polymorphism. The number of population alleles ranged from 3 to 11, averaging 7.09. The average expected heterozygosity (H_e) was 0.7816 and the average polymorphism information content (PIC) 0.7172, suggesting a relatively high genetic diversity in the population.

Reintroduction of captive-bred animals into suitable habitats is an important technique for the long-term conservation and recovery of populations of endangered species in fragmented landscapes. Inbreeding depression is an inherent risk when using captive populations for reintroduction programs and needs to be carefully assessed prior to reintroduction. In this study, we evaluated inbreeding levels within a captive breeding program and one remnant wild population of Cabot's Tragopan (Tragopan caboti), an endangered pheasant species endemic to China, for which reintroduction is now an essential conservation strategy for long-term population persistence. Fifteen highly polymorphic microsatellite loci were developed to genotype individuals. Inbreeding coefficients (F_IS) reveal that there is no evidence of inbreeding within the Tragopan Breeding Center of Beijing Normal University (TBCBNU) captive population and the remnant population from the Wuyi-Yandang Mountains. Diversity of origin, large founder population size and a rational breeding strategy are the most critical factors preventing inbreeding depression within the TBCBNU captive population. We suggest that the TBCBNU population is a suitable candidate stock for T. caboti reintroduction programs and that there is an urgent need to better coordinate and strengthen reproduction management of captive T. caboti populations to sustain the long-term ex situ conservation of the species.

Interaction between a parasite and its host could lead to a co-evolutionary arms race. Cuckoo-host system is among the most studied of all brood parasite systems, but the cuckoos of Asia, on the other hand, are much less well known. China has the most abundant cuckoo species in Asia. Many of these co-occur in sympatric areas, posing a potential risk of mis-identification of cuckoo nestlings, especially in Cuculus species. In this study we have provided a practical criterion to identify cuckoo nestlings species in the field and performed molecular phylogeny to confirm our empirical results. These results indicate that two distinct characteristics of cuckoo nestlings, i.e., the gape color pattern and feather traits can be considered as reliable species identification. To our knowledge, this is the first report for species identification of Cuculus nestlings through molecular analysis.

In order to measure the impact of changes in the marsh on breeding Red-crowned Cranes (Grus japonensis) and White-naped Cranes (G. vipio) in the Sanjiang Plain, we conducted a complete crane survey in each of the summers of 2007 and 2008, and obtained information on the changes in its marsh through interpretation of satellite images in 1986, 1995, 2000 and 2005. A comparison between the 1984 and 2008 census shows that: 1) the number of Red-crowned Cranes remained stable at about 300 birds, while the number of White-naped Cranes increased markedly; 2) the estimates of nests of Red-crowned cranes are close to the numbers of 1984, while approximately 90% of the nests of these two crane species were distributed over five national nature reserves (NNRs); 3) the two crane species became more concentrated in three regions, i.e., the Fuyuan Delta, the middle reaches of the Naoli and Qixing rivers, and the Xingkai Lake wetlands, rather as formerly in six regions. The area of the marsh decreased by 45% within the 20-year period from 1986 to 2005. The major loss of the marsh area was in the form of a conversion to paddy fields and dry land, which can be primarily attributed to direct human activity under various economic and policy drivers. The disappearance of cranes in the Dulu and Abuqin rivers was induced by large-scale agricultural development. The fragmentation into and isolation of small areas of the marsh became increasingly more serious, which resulted in unsuitable condtions for crane breeding in small patches of the marsh. The number of cranes declined from 1984-1995 but had recovered remarkably by 2008, which may be due to the establishment of a system of nature reserves, in place since 2000. The land ownership of the reserve plays a key role in maintaining the integrity of the wetland ecosystem, especially in Sanjiang, Honghe, Naolihe and Qixinghe NNRs, which together accommodated approximately 80% of the population of cranes. However, we did not discover any nests at all in the provincial and municipal reserves, which may be attributed to high human disturbances in these areas. In the end, we propose some recommendations on reserve management.

Ectoparasites and other invertebrates are known to play a role in bird behavior and in evolutionary adaptations such as preening and foraging strategies. We conducted an exploratory study by macro- and microscopically evaluating the nests of Hair-crested Drongos (Dicrurus hottentottus) at Dongzhai National Nature Reserve, Henan Province, China in 2011 to determine if there was a presence of invertebrates. We developed a modified funneling technique to collect invertebrate samples and reduce contamination from outside sources in a field setting. We found several species of ectoparasites (lice and ticks) and other invertebrates (springtails and rove beetles) within the nests. Our findings warrant further investigation as to whether or not the presence of invertebrates in the nests of Hair-crested Drongos plays a role in the adaptation of the unique nest dismantling behavior exhibited by this species.

We investigated collisions with power lines by Black-necked Cranes (Grus nigricollis) and Bar-headed Geese (Anser indicus) along the Yarlung Tsangpo River in the Tibet Autonomous Region during two winters. Three segments of a 35 kV transmission line were surveyed each winter for injured and dead birds. Injured birds disappeared within five days of their initial detection; most dead birds encountered had been scavenged. We recorded two dead geese on transects and two injured geese and two dead cranes adjacent to transects. We found a higher incidence of bird strikes along power line segments close to roosting and foraging areas. We recommend that power lines, new or old, located in the flight path from nocturnal roosts, near important foraging areas or crossing the mouths of important agricultural valleys should be marked with colored and/or reflecting devices that have been proven to reduce crane and goose collisions.

The Trans-Baikal geographical region is located in southeastern Siberia, Russia, east towards Lake Baikal and include the Daurian steppes. The steppes provide important habitats for several species of cranes, including the Red-crowned Crane (Grus japonensis). I have studied the cranes in the area since 1988. The Red-crowned Crane mainly occurs in the Torey Depression (Torey Lake) and the Argun River, which represent the far western edge of the breeding area for the continental population of the Red-crowned Crane. There are some scattering records of the cranes in the Torey Depression from before 1990. The birds appeared regularly and bred from 2002-2007 at Torey Lake. There have been no records since 2008 due to the fact that the wetlands have dried out during the regional climate cycle in the Torey Depression. Three or four individual Red-crowned Cranes have been sighted in Argun in the early 2000's and then the numbers increased steadily until 2004. At the highest peak in 2004, there were at least 30 pairs of the cranes breeding in the wetlands of the river floodplain. Since then, with the reduced water flow in the Argun River and more and more wetlands drying out, the Red-crowned Crane population decreased dramatically to four or seven territories. The cranes are facing serious threats in the Argun River, such as frequent spring fires, poaching and water pollution. We need to unify efforts from both the Russian and Chinese sides to protect the cranes and their wetland habitat in the area.

We studied migratory Red-crowned cranes from 1991-2012 in order to track population dynamics and trends for these cranes over time at Shuangtaihekou, northeastern China. Our results show that the earliest arrival date of the Red-crowned Crane (Grus japonensis) was usually around 1 March in the spring and the latest departure date of the cranes around 8 November. The peak period for the number of cranes observed in the spring was 10-20 March over these 22 years. The staging period in the spring is about 25 days. Comparing the highest number of Red-crowned cranes observed in the spring, the migratory population was around 400 birds in the 1990s, then, increased to over 800 birds in 2000. For a short while, the population maintained itself around 600-800 birds. After that, the population started to decline, until during the most recent years, we observed around 400 birds at peak times of each season. Our results match a similar population change pattern observed in the wintering area for a western population, which has been declining since 2000. There is an urgent need to reinforce protection and management, as well as to maintain and improve the quality of their habitats.

Two new bird records for China of the Himalayan Black-lored Tit (Parus xanthogenys) and the Nepal Wren-Babbler (Pnoepyga immaculata) were established at Zhangmu, a small town in Tibet bordering on Nepal, in two birding trips in 2010, respectively.

We investigated the levels of nickel in the feathers of the Western Reef Heron (Egretta gularis) and Siberian Gull (Larus heuglini) from the Hara Biosphere Reserve in southern Iran from November to December 2010. Analysis of variance shows that no significant differences in nickel levels were found between gender and age groups in either species, but it should be pointed out that the number of samples was small. Student t tests show that the amount of nickel in the feathers of the Siberian Gull was higher than in the Western Reef Heron. The level of nickel concentration in the Western Reef Heron was higher in females than in males; on the other hand, this level of concentration in the Siberian Gull was higher in males.

In 2008 and 2009, we made continuous and repeated breeding surveys of the Scaly-sided Merganser (Mergus squamatus) in the Changbai Mountain range (China side), using a combination of rubber-boat drifting and walking. Each survey consisted of a census of breeding pairs in the spring and broods in the summer. A total of 1553 km in length of 17 river stretches were surveyed in four different river systems of the Yalujiang, Songhuajiang, Tumenjiang and Mudanjiang rivers. A total of 1354 individuals of the Scaly-sided Merganser were recorded during the both surveys. The breeding density for all the stretches surveyed over both years averaged 0.26 ±0.30 pairs per km; the population density in the spring averaged 0.75 ±0.88 individuals per km. According to our survey results, we estimated that the breeding population in the Changbai Mountain range was about 170 breeding pairs of the Scaly-sided Merganser. Three major breeding sites of this bird were found in the Changbai Mountain range in these surveys.

Hume's Pheasant (Syrmaticus humiae) and the Silver Pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) are two sympatric bird species at Dazhong Mountain of Yunnan Province, southwestern China. We investigated characteristics of roosting habitats of the two pheasants from February to April, 2004 in this area. Multiple statistics, Matryoshka and a habitat classification-tree were used to analyze the selection of roosting habitats of these pheasants. The results of the habitat classification-tree indicated that several separations occurred in their macro and micro roosting habitats in the study area. The two pheasants had similar crucial requirements for and selection of ecological roosting factors, which allow them to live in the same macrohabitat. Competition between these two pheasants was avoided by separation of spatial elements, such as roosting trees and topographic characteristics. For safety strategy, Hume's Pheasant adopted primarily a way of "uneasily found habitat cover plus easy escape", while the Silver Pheasant employed a unique way of "uneasily found habitat cover". For tactics of keeping warm, Hume's Pheasant selected mainly a method of "suitable vegetation supplemented with suitable topography", while the Silver Pheasant chose a unique manner of "suitable vegetation".

To understand better the impact on mist net capture rates of the activity height of birds, light intensity, bird richness and abundance, we compared data from mist nets and point counts at the Jianfengling Forest Area, Hainan Island. Mist-nets were operated for a total of 7135 net-hours. A total of 587 individuals of 45 bird species were captured. The total mean capture rate was 8.6 ±10.4 per 100 net-hours. A total of 4932 individuals of 107 bird species were recorded by visual observation alone and 7616 individuals of 120 species were recorded in a visual and aural combination. The Grey-cheeked Fulvetta (Alcippe morrisonia) was the most abundant species, accounting for 38.7% of total captures, 27.9% of visual observations and 22.2% of visual + aural observations. The capture number was correlated with the number observed. Thirty-one species were more likely to be captured than observed. Canopy species, such as members of the Corvidae and Dicruridae, were seldom captured. For all ground feeding species, the capture number was greater than that of observation. Some cryptic species, such as the Lesser Wren Babbler (Napothera epilepidota), Spotnecked Babbler (Stachyris striolata) and Cuckoo Owl (Glaucidium cuculoides) also had a higher relative capture rate than that of observations. There was a significant relationship between light intensity and the number of birds captured.

Following a series of surveys since 2003,a full-seasonal raptor count was undertaken at Baiwangshan,a mountain in the vicinity of Beijing,from 6 March to 22 May 2009, when 3802 individual birds of 23 species were recorded. Four species,i.e.,Oriental Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus),Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo),Eurasian Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter nisus) and Gray-faced Buzzard (Butastur indicus) together accounted for up 90% of the total and P. ptilorhynchus alone for 70%. Raptor passage of such magnitude and diversity at an inland site in China was unheard of up to then. As well,113 other migrants were recorded at the site during this period,including 24 water birds,74 passerines and 15 others (cuckoos,owls and other migrants).

We modeled foraging habitats of Hume's Pheasant (Syrmaticus humiae) on a macro-habitat level using ArcGIS in an attempt to provide scientific reference for management and restoration of habitats. Field work was conducted from March to April in 2006 and 2008, and from October to November in 2005 and 2008 in Dazhong Mountain, Yunnan Province, southwestern China. The selection of ecological factors was estimated by means of a resource selection index, distance analysis and the method of hierarchical habitat selection. The foraging habitat patches were modeled spatially by ArcGIS. The results show that actual and potential foraging patches overlapped considerably in spring and autumn. The number and total areas of patches in the autumn were smaller than those in the spring. The minimum and average areas of patches in the autumn were larger than those in the spring, while the maximum areas of actual and potential foraging patches in the autumn were equal to those in the spring. Similarity in the selection for survival and safety consideration in both seasons was the main strategy for landscape factors of habitats by Hume's Pheasant, while seasonal difference in selecting a landscape matrix was their secondary strategy, affecting landscape factors in the habitat. Changes of foraging patches in both seasons reflect a difference of resources requirement by the bird. Fragmentation and miniaturization of foraging patches would result in the formation of a meta-population of Hume's Pheasant.

Once, in 2007, the authors had written: regarding to the endangerment of the White-eared Night Heron (Gorsachius magnificus), it would be evidentially to say that no longer the status of the bird is to meet the Criteria EN C1 but more likely still marginally meet EN C2a(i), and hence the bird might be currently remained amongst those Endangered (EN), with caveats that, if any bird could have been found in an area outside the range of any known subpopulation, it will then warrant a lower threat status. Now, it is time for due consideration.

Polymorphism in egg coloration is prominent in the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) and a common host, the Ashy-throated Parrotbill (Paradoxornis alphonsianus). Egg polymorphism has probably evolved as a consequence of frequency-dependent selection in both host and parasite, and has, according to human vision, resulted in discrete immaculate white, pale blue and blue egg phenotypes within a single population. However, egg mimicry assessment is not always straightforward, and previous studies have shown that human based comparisons applied to the coloration of bird eggs may be inadequate. Here, we objectively quantify egg color of both parasite and host by spectrophotometry and assess egg mimicry of the Common Cuckoo to the eggs of its Ashy-throated Parrotbill host. Our results revealed that egg reflectance spectra agree well with the assessment based on human vision that cuckoo eggs mimic those of the parrotbill host, in both visible (VIS) and ultraviolet (UV) ranges. However, the white cuckoo egg shows slightly poorer mimicry than the blue cuckoo egg in corresponding host clutches. We suggest that the white parrotbill egg morph (and subsequently the whitish cuckoo egg color) may have evolved after the evolution of the blue egg morph due to strong selection from parasites in the cuckoo-parrotbill system.

A female Brown-fronted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos auriceps) was first observed and photographed in the Jilong Valley of the Mount Qomolangma Region, China, on 21 May 2012. The coordinates of the site are 28°19'25.03″N, 85°20'29.70″E at an elevation of 2150 m. A few months later, a male was observed at 28°20'02.49″N, 85°20'46.30″E on 8 August at an elevation of 2197 m. The habitat is a mountain temperate coniferous and dry broadleaved mixed forest of the warm temperate zone.

The Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) is a rare species with an extremely small range in China. From March to June in 2005 and 2006, we investigated the nest-site selection of the Purple Swamphen in the Guangdong Haifeng Avian Natural Reserve, China. Nests were bowlshaped or shallow cups with most of them constructed in hydrophyte clusters of Scirpus tabernaemontani. Distance to road and distance to water edge were significantly different between nest sites and non-nest sites and were important for determining nesting sites based on stepwise discriminant analysis. Our results suggest restoring and protecting the extant nesting areas is essential for effective conservation of the Purple Swamphen in China.

The limestone region in southwestern Guangxi contains the most typical karst landforms in the world. Due to their destruction, the original forests mainly survive in nature reserves in the form of fragmented areas. From June 2009 to September 2010 we conducted an investigation of 13 relatively isolated habitats or sites, selected from each of the 13 nature reserves in southwestern Guangxi, with the least amount of anthropological activity and the largest presence of the original vegetation, in order to study the distribution of birds on forest fragments. The distribution patterns of the birds and the factors which affect them were analyzed by using the "BINMATNEST" software and the Spearman's rank correlation analysis, to determine: 1) whether nested patterns of birds in the karst area of southwestern Guangxi exist or not and 2) which factors are correlated with the nested patterns and the effect of these factors on forming nested patterns. The results show that the birds had statistically significant nested patterns in the karst area and the specificity of the habitat of the birds had a significant effect on the nested patterns. We suggest possible reasons for these results, based on the characteristics of the seasonal tropical rain forests in the study area and on neutral theory. We also urgently recommend that close attention be paid to the protection of the diversity of the environment for birds in all fragmented habitats.

We investigated a breeding population of Common Coots (Fulica atra) from April to June in 2008 and 2009. We found that each pair of coots built display platforms beside their nest in their territory during the breeding season. On average, 3.1 (range 2-7) platforms were built by each pair of coots. Display platforms were simpler with less coverage and were significantly lower above the water surface than nests; however, their depth below the water surface was not significantly different. Platforms were primarily used for roosting, preening and mating in the breeding season, but they were also used to store animal food. In the breeding season, nest was usually built later than platforms, the use ratio (total and daily frequency) of platforms decreased after nest was built, and more mating behavior was performed on the nest than on the platform. We compared the use ratio of both sexes to the nest and platforms in different breeding phases; the results show that females used the nest more than the platforms, while males used the platforms more than the females, suggesting that females pay more attention to breeding, while males put more energy in territorial defense. Since coots are territorial during the breeding season, the platforms may play an important role in confirming and recognizing territorial boundaries.

Although a growing number of both sequence-based and microsatellite nuclear loci have been used to infer genetic structures, their relative efficiencies remain poorly understood. In our study, we used the Green-backed Tit (Parus monticolus) to explore the resolving ability of these two types of markers. The south-western and central mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogroups were divergent to some extent in sequence-based nuclear data, while mixed together in microsatellites data. The F_ST values among clades were about four times lower in microsatellite loci than those in sequence-based nuclear loci. We are of the opinion that size homoplasy may have contributed to the inability of microsatellites to uncover differentiation. Our results suggest that sequence-based nuclear loci outperformed microsatellite loci in detecting population structures, especially those focused on populations with large effective population sizes. There was no significant correlation between F_ST values and allelic size variability, which suggested that the efficiency of microsatellite loci in detecting genetic structure may be independent of their polymorphism. F_ST is better than R_ST in detecting intraspecific divergence due to the high variance of R_ST. In agreement with sequence-based nuclear loci, microsatellite loci did resolve the genetic distinctness of the Taiwanese phylogroup. The genetic differentiation between the Taiwanese and continental clades may involve allopatric divergence without gene flow.

The Blue-eared Pheasant (Crossoptilon auritum) is an important bird species, endemic to China and is ranked as a second grade key protected wildlife species in China. These birds are only found in the mountainous regions of Qinghai, Gansu and Sichuan provinces and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. In order to understand systematically the existing information on the biology of the Blue-eared Pheasant, we provide updated information on its habitat, activity, nest-site features, breeding biology, feeding habits, population status and conservation of this pheasant by integrating published data with the information from our field surveys, conducted from 2006 to 2008 in the Gaihai-zecha National Nature Reserve, Gansu.

In Europe, eggs of the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) have been found in more than 125 different host species. However, very few species are frequently parasitized. The Cuckoo is divided into several distinct races termed gentes. Females of each gens specialize in parasitizing a particular host species. More than 20 such gentes are recognized in Europe. Each female Cuckoo lays eggs of constant appearance. Most gentes can be separated based on their distinct egg types, which in many cases mimic those of their hosts. Different gentes may occur in sympatry or may be separated geographically. Some gentes may occur in restricted parts of the host's distribution area. These patterns raise some fundamental questions like: Why are some passerine species preferred as hosts while others are not? Why does a host population consist of individuals either accepting or rejecting Cuckoo eggs? Why is there marked variation in egg rejection behavior between various host populations? How distinct and host-specialized are Cuckoo gentes? These questions are discussed in relation to existing knowledge and future perspectives.

Different lineages of birds show varying sensitivity to light in the ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths. In several avian brood parasite-host systems, UV-reflectance of the parasite eggs is important in discriminating own from foreign eggs by the hosts. In turn, for parasitic females it may be beneficial to lay eggs into host clutches where eggs more closely match the parasite's own eggs. While the visual sensitivities of numerous cuckoo- and cowbird-host species have been described, less is known about those of their respective parasites. Such sensory characterization is important for understanding the mechanisms underlying potential perceptual coevolutionary processes between hosts and parasites, as well as for better understanding each species' respective visual sensory ecology. We sequenced the short wavelength-sensitive type 1 (SWS1) opsin gene to predict the degree of UVsensitivity in both of New Zealand's obligate parasitic cuckoo species, the Shining Cuckoo (Chalcites[Chrysococcyx] lucidus) and the Long-tailed Cuckoo (Urodynamis[Eudynamis] taitensis). We show that both species are predicted to possess SWS1 opsins with maximal sensitivity in the human-visible violet portion of the short-wavelength light spectrum, and not in the UV. Future studies should focus on the (mis)matching in host-parasite visual sensitivities with respect to host-parasite egg similarity as perceived by the avian visual system and the behavioral outcomes of foreign egg rejection.

We surveyed all known wintering areas of the Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) in Zhigatse Prefecture of the Tibet Autonomous Region during three winters. Our surveys confirm that Zhigatse Prefecture is the most important wintering area for the species, accounting in some years for as much as 39% of the estimated world population. Counts ranged from a high of 4240 cranes in January 2007 to a low of 2636 in February 2009. Chick recruitment (chicks/100 cranes) ranged from 8.2 (January 2010) to 11.3 (January 2007). The highest concentration of cranes during all three surveys occurred on the 60 km stretch of the Yarlung Tsangpo (River) between Lhaze and Phuntsoling. To evaluate potential impacts of the Xietongmen Copper Mine, we monitored wintering crane numbers prior to mine installation in an intensive study area located between the Shab Chu Valley and the city of Zhigatse. Our surveys recorded on average 820±83 cranes (SE; n=8) in this area. With the installation of the mine at a location~50 km west of Zhigatse, increased traffic and development on the north side of the Yarlung River will likely result in a shift in crane distribution away from the north side, to nearby suitable habitats. Based on our survey results, we recommend three areas hosting high numbers of cranes in the vicinity of the mine be added to the Yarlung Tsangpo Middle Reaches Blacknecked Crane Nature Reserve. These areas are Nierixiong and Jiaqingze Villages in Nierixiong Xiang and the Shab Chu Valley.

In order to assess the effect of the observer distance on the behavior of Red-crowned Cranes (Grus japonensis), we studied their time budgets with a gradient of observer distances in Yancheng, China from December 2008 to March 2009. Observer distance was classified into four levels, i.e., < 200 m, 200–300 m, 300–400 m and > 400 m. The results indicated that cranes increased their vigilance when the observer was less than 300 m away. A safe distance for the observer was often as far as or more than 300 m. Cranes increased scan frequency when observers were within 200 m, whereas they prolonged the duration of their scan when observers were between 200 m and 300 m away, indicating two distinct vigilant strategies, given the observer distance. We suggest an observer distance of at least 300 m, in order to minimize the observer effect.

Understanding the occurrence of multiple distinct phenotypes in a population of a species, i.e., polymorphism, is one of the challenges encountered in evolutionary biology. Egg color polymorphism in birds is one example of morphological polymorphism and disruptive selection has been proposed as a hypothetical mechanism to explain its occurrence. We studied how polymorphic egg colors (immaculate blue and white) occur in Korean populations of the Vinous-throated Parrotbill (Paradoxornis webbianus). Egg color ratios (the proportion of nests with blue eggs in a population) were monitored over a large spatial scale and egg colors were quantified using a spectrophotometer. We found egg color ratios to vary spatially among populations. Interestingly, there was a latitudinal morph-ratio cline in egg color ratios. The proportion of nests with blue eggs increased considerably with the latitude declined towards the southern part of the Korean peninsula. There were some quantitative variations in egg colors among populations. However, the pattern of variations was not consistent with those of the population egg color ratios. Based on these results, we discuss a potential scenario for the evolution of egg color polymorphism in the Vinous-throated Parrotbill.

Some Miocene ratite eggshell fragments from Gashunyinadege (about 17.5 Ma) and Baogedawula (7.11 ± 0.48 Ma), Inner Mongolia, China, are described. The outer surfaces of eggshell fragments from Gashunyinadege are smooth with a sting pore pattern, while their entire thickness is around 2.12 mm. In a cross-sectional view, the surface crystal layer is very thin and the ratio of cone layer to the columnar layer is about 1:2.4. The specimens from Baogedawula present similar microscopic characters as those from Gashunyinadege, but seem much thinner and have a lower pore density. Both characteristics fit aepyornithid-type eggshells, implying that the distribution of aepyornithid-type eggshells can be extended to East Asia. The sediments at Gashunyinadege date to approximately 17.5 Ma, implying that the specimens from this locality are relatively early examples of aepyornithid-type eggshells. Aepyornithid-type eggshells seem to have appeared in Eurasia much earlier than struthionid-type eggshells. The faunal compositions in the two localities reflect gradual drying of the Mongolian plateau during the Miocene. A reduction in the number of pores 10 Ma ago, probably occurred in response to this drying process.

The present study aimed to investigate avian diversity in hedgerows at Angacha, in the Kembatta zone, Ethiopia. Transect and point-count methods were deployed to determine avian diversity, species richness, similarity and preferences across five sub study sites. Diversity and preferences of birds to hedgerow types varied in relation to their vegetation composition and structure. Five endemic species, i.e., Rüppel's Black Chat (Cossyfa semirufa), the White-cheeked Turaco (Tauraco leucotis), the Banded Barbet (Lybius undatus), the Abyssinian Oriole (Oriolus monacha) and the Wattled Ibis (Bostrychia carucullatta) were recorded in the thick hedgerow type. Thickness, height and width of hedgerows affected the diversity, distribution and habitat preference of birds. Thick hedgerow types showed the highest avian species diversity, richness and similarity. There was a high correlation between the hedgerow diversity and its bird diversity, which was directly associated with habitat quality. Bird species diversity and preference for hedgerow types require important conservation and management priorities.

The Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), occurring mainly in the Tibetan Plateau, is one of the scavengers of Old World vultures. As of now, knowledge about the Himalayan Griffon in China remains scarce. Estimates of its number, habitat, and conservation status were carried out in 2003, 2009 and 2102 in the Lhasa River Valley, where we paid particular attention to the population living at the Drigung Thel Monastery, Mzizhokunggar County. The resident species occupies alpine meadows in the daytime and roosts at the upper parts of cliffs at night between 4400-5000 m elevation. The number of individual birds of the Himalayan Griffon around the monastery was estimated as 230 in 2003, 250 in 2009 and 200 in 2012. This population is considered relatively stable, thanks to the current conservation measures by Buddhist monks and local people. Given the lack of any baseline information, it is difficult for us to recommend and provide any effective conservation measures.