The Hainan Partridge (Arborophila ardens) is endemic to Hainan Island, China, and is listed as vulnerable (VU) because its population size is steadily decreasing due to illegal hunting and habitat loss. Its breeding biology is poorly known.

This study was conducted in three sites in the major tropical primary rainforest in Hainan. Nests of the Hainan Partridge were found by monitoring radio-tracked individuals. Video recorders were set up to monitor reproductive behaviour of Hainan Partridge when nests were found.

Here for the first time we report the breeding biology of Hainan Partridge by providing information on its nest site, nest, eggs, and reproductive behaviour. We found that Hainan Partridges laid immaculate white eggs in ground nests which were totally covered by dry leaves and small branches forming arches that provided optimal concealment. A novel and regular behaviour was found in Hainan Partridges since they grasped leaves and small branches and then threw them on or around their nests to provide cover during incubation and after hatching of chicks.

Recruitment behaviour in Hainan Partridges benefit from supplementation of nest arch material to nests, cover the nest entrance and thus maintain or increase nest concealment. However, it may also contribute to concealment of the track which could expose their activities and clues for predators. Our finding implies that the Hainan Partridge has evolved such a novel reproductive behaviour under the strong selection of predation pressure. Due to habitat fragmentation and habitat loss, we suggest setting up arch structures and provide small branches and leaves in degraded or fragmented habitats to improve their suitability for partridge reproduction. This method may contribute to increasing the reproductive success of Hainan Partridge and thus compensate for its continuous population decrease.

Concerns for bird collisions with wind turbines affect the deployment of onshore and offshore wind-power plants. To avoid delays in consenting processes and to streamline the construction and operation phase, functional mitigation measures are required which efficiently reduces bird mortality. Vision is the primary sensory system in birds, which for a number of species also includes the ultraviolet spectrum. Many bird species that are known to collide with offshore wind turbines are sensitive in the violet or ultraviolet spectrum. For species that are mainly active at lower ambient light levels, lighting may deter birds from the lit area. Utilizing (ultra)violet lights may in addition not disturb humans. However, we do not know whether UV-sensitive birds in flight actually respond behaviourally to UV lights.

We therefore tested the efficacy of two types of lights within the violet (400 nm) and ultraviolet (365 nm) spectrum to deter birds from the lit area. These lights were placed vertically and monitored continuously between dusk and dawn using an avian radar system.

Relative to control nights, bird flight activity (abundance) was 27% lower when the ultraviolet light was on. Violet light resulted in a 12% decrease in overall abundance, and in addition, a vertical displacement was seen, increasing the average flight altitude by 7 m. Although temporal changes occurred, this effect persisted over the season below 40 m above sea level.

Although the results from this pilot study are promising, we argue there still is a long way to go before a potentially functional design to mitigate collisions that has proven to be effective in situ may be in place.

The habitat features of breeding territory have important adaptive significance for the survival and reproduction of territory holders. The Chinese Grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) is a rare and endemic species with relatively small distribution range and decreasing population trend. It is important to elucidate breeding territory habitat requirements of the Chinese Grouse for habitat management and conservation actions.

Using radio-telemetry and field observations, we determined the core areas of 65 breeding territories of males. Two to three samples were selected in each core breeding territory as used sites and compared with nearby sites with no grouse occurrence using logistic regression.

Our model showed a high accuracy in prediction of core breeding territory used by males, which preferred stands with more small deciduous trees (0.5 m ≤ height < 5 m), more small willow trees (Salix spp., 0.5 m ≤ height < 5 m), greater willow cover, and greater herb cover. The number of small willow trees had the greatest influence on males' core breeding territory selection. Dense shrubs were also chosen compared with unused sites. Tall conifer trees was an important determinant in the distribution of Chinese Grouse at the landscape scale, and was relatively important in the univariate model, but not included in our final multivariable model.

Male Chinese Grouse established territories at sites with abundant food resources. At the landscape scale, the Chinese Grouse occurred in alpine conifer forest. At the territory scale, small willow trees had the most important effect on males' core breeding territory selection. We suggest that the forest gaps in dense conifer forest are important for improving the occurrence of willows and facilitating breeding territory establishment for the Chinese Grouse.

Different functional frugivores generally exhibit unequal contributions, both in terms of quantity (seed removal) and quality (seedling recruitment), to effective seed dispersal of plant species. However, variations in this dispersal pattern generated by frugivores across different regions are still unknown.

In our study, we evaluated the contributions of two functional frugivore bird groups, the bulbuls (Pycnon-otidae) and crows (Corvidae), in both the seed removal and seedling recruitment of the endangered Chinese yew tree (Taxus chinensis) across three different geographical regions in eastern China.

The dominant crow species, Urocissa erythrorhyncha, was the most common disperser crow species at all sites, while the dominant bulbul species varied across the three sites. Furthermore, the two functional groups of dispersers diverged in the aspects of seed removal (quantity) and seedling recruitment pattern (quality). While bulbuls outperformed crows in seed removal (quantity), crows took more seeds to a safer site for seedlings (quality).

Our results highlight the importance of variations in the effective seed dispersal patterns of different functional disperser groups across different regions in the conservation and management of endangered tree species.

The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) has undergone dramatic population declines in many parts of Europe. It has been widely hypothesised that a lack of cavity nest sites has contributed to this decline. However the idea of the House Sparrow being nest site limited is somewhat incompatible with the long history of nest site plasticity in the species.

The nest-site selection in a population of non-native House Sparrows introduced to Australia from Europe just over 150 years ago was characterised. The prevalence of non-cavity nesting was quantified, and nest-site selection in terms of landscape and nesting structure were described.

Flexible nesting behaviors were reported over a range of different landscapes and a surprisingly high rate of nesting in vegetation (43%) was documented. Most nests found in vegetation were not in cavities, but were woven into the foliage and supported by branches and stems.

The high rate of vegetation nesting indicates that in this introduced population, the House Sparrow is unlikely to be constrained by cavity-nest site availability. The high degree of nest site plasticity in the Australian population may suggest that European House Sparrows have the potential to shift away from their proclivity for cavity nests. Future work in Europe should examine the incidence of non-cavity nesting in House Sparrows more closely, and perhaps reconsider the idea that House Sparrows are nest-site constrained.

The breeding information of most birds in Asian tropical areas,especially in limestone forests,is still poorly known. The Streaked Wren-Babbler (Napothera brevicaudata) is an uncommon tropical limestone bird with a small range. We studied its nest-site selection and breeding ecology,in order to understand the adaptations of birds to the conditions of tropical limestone forest in southern China.

We used methods of systematical searching and parent-following to locate the nests of the Streaked Wren-Babbler. We measured characteristics of nest sites and rock cavities. Data loggers and video cameras were used to monitor the breeding behavior.

All the observed nests of the Streaked Wren-Babbler were placed in natural shallow cavities or deep holes in large boulders or limestone cliffs. The great majority (96.6%) of Streaked Wren-Babbler nests had three eggs with an average fresh weight of 3.46 ± 0.43 g (n = 36,range 2.52?4.20 g). Most (80.4%) females laid their first eggs between March and April (n = 46). The average incubation and nestling period of the Streaked Wren-Babbler was 10.2 ± 0.4 days (n = 5,range 10?11 days) and 10.5 ± 0.8 days (n = 6,range 9?11 days),respectively. Most (87.9%) nests had at least one nestling fledge between 2011 and 2013 (n = 33).

Our study suggests that several features of the breeding ecology of the Streaked Wren-Babbler,including building nests in rocky cavities,commencing breeding earlier than most species,and reducing foraging times during the incubation period,are well-adapted to the unique habitat of tropical limestone forest.

Avian brood parasitism is a breeding strategy in which brood parasites lay their eggs in the nest of other species. This behavior is closely related to aspects of the biological evolution of the parasitic species such as reduced female body size and plumage color polymorphism. However, not much is known whether it is associated with the evolution of vocalization.

We collected samples of the typical male calls of 67 species belonging to the sub‑family Cuculinae. Using the calls, we measured five acoustic parameters for each samples to test the differences in vocal structures between parasitic and nonparasitic species. To control for potential phylogenetic effects, we also performed phylogenetic independent contrast analyses.

We found that vocal structures were relatively similar among the parasitic species with a tendency to simple and low-frequency calls. In addition, harmonic structures were observed more frequently in the nonparasitic group.

Overall, these results support the idea that brood parasitic behavior with associated ecological condi tions may play a role in vocal evolution, a better understanding of which may greatly improve our knowledge of vocal diversification in non-oscine birds.

Wild birds are considered to be reservoirs of human enteric pathogens and vectors of antimicrobial resistance dissemination in the environment. During their annual migration, they play a potential role in the epidemiology of human associated zoonoses. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency of isolation and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of microorganisms found in the cloaca of common European passerines.

One hundred and twenty-one cloacal swabs were collected during a monitoring program of migratory birds in the Forest Reserve for Protection pMetapontoq (Basilicata, Italy). All samples were cultured using standard bacteriological methods and antibiotic susceptibility testing (agar disk diffusion test) of isolated strains was performed.

The bacteriological analysis produced 122 strains belonging to 18 different species. The most commonly isolated species were Enterobacter cloacae and Providencia rettgeri (21 strains, 17.2%). Potentially pathogenic species including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas spp. have also been identified. Isolates showed significant frequencies of antimicrobial resistance. The highest frequency of resistance was observed against amoxicillin (n = 79, 64.8%); ampicillin (n = 77, 63.1%); rifampicin (n = 75, 61.5%); amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (n = 66, 54.1%). Thirty-one strains (25.4%) showed resistance to imipenem and 8 (6.6%) to meropenem.

Migratory birds play an important role in the ecology, circulation and dissemination of potentially pathogenic antimicrobial resistant organisms. They can therefore be considered sentinel species and environmental health indicators. Our results suggest that the integration of epidemiological surveillance networks during ringing campaigns of wild species can be an effective tool to study this phenomenon.

Acclimatization to winter conditions is an essential prerequisite for the survival of small birds in the northern temperate zone. Changes in photoperiod, ambient temperature and food availability trigger seasonal physiological and behavioral acclimatization in many passerines. Seasonal trends in metabolic parameters are well known in avian populations from temperate environments; however, the physiological and biochemical mechanisms underlying these trends are incompletely understood. In this study, we used an integrative approach to measure variation in the thermogenic properties of the male Silky Starling (Sturnus sericeus) at different levels or organization, from the whole organism to the biochemical. We measured body mass (M_b), basal metabolic rate (BMR), energy budget, the mass of selected internal organs, state 4 respiration and cytochrome c oxidase (COX) activity in the heart, liver and muscle.

Oxygen consumption was measured using an open-circuit respirometry system. The energy intake of the birds were then determined using an oxygen bomb calorimeter. Mitochondrial state 4 respiration and COX activity in heart, liver and pectoral muscle were measured with a Clark electrode.

The results suggest that acclimatization to winter conditions caused significant change in each of the measured variables, specifically, increases in M_b, organ mass, BMR, energy intake and cellular enzyme activity. Furthermore, BMR was positively correlated with body mass, energy intake, the mass of selected internal organs, state 4 respiration in the heart, liver and muscle, and COX activity in the heart and muscle.

These results suggest that the male Silky Starlingos enhanced basal thermogenesis under winter conditions is achieved by making a suite of adjustments from the whole organism to the biochemical level, and provide further evidence to support the notion that small birds have high phenotypic plasticity with respect to seasonal changes.

The Western Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) is a partial migrant with the populations from Eastern and Northern Europe migrating south to sub-Saharan Africa. During the autumn migration, that is peaking in September, harriers move on a broad front heading SW and undertake long sea-crossings en route to their wintering quarters, passing in substantial numbers through Italy and Malta with the highest concentrations recorded at the Strait of Messina. Most of the individuals migrating across the Strait are heading for the wintering quarters in Africa, while fewer spend the winter in Sicily.

In a 5-year study (2011-2015), between 26 August and 30 September, we determined age and sex of autumn migrating harriers through this flyway. In 2014 we determined, by marine radar and optical range finder, the flight altitude of migrating harriers.

A total of 10, 261 Western Marsh Harriers were counted during the whole study, with an average of 2052 per autumn season. Adults outnumbered juveniles and males outnumbered females. Harriers flew at lower altitudes during the morning while large flocks flew lower than single birds or small flocks.

Our observations are consistent with previous surveys and confirm that adult males have a tendency to migrate over a long distance, while substantial numbers of adult females and juveniles do not head for the wintering quarters in Africa. Finally, flight patterns recorded can be explained by a more pronounced flapping flight of Western Marsh Harriers during migration.

Bone fracture frequencies and survival rates are essential parameters in skeleton evolution, but information on the functional consequences of naturally healed fractures is scarce. No leg bone fracture healing in the wild has been reported so far from long-legged Charadriiformes (waders), which depend on bipedal locomotion for feeding.

We documented a healed but malaligned tarsometatarsus fracture in a wild Willet (Tringa [Catoptrophorus] semipalmata), and a malaligned tibiotarsus fracture in a Curlew (Numenius arquata) skeleton from a museum collection. Functional consequences of the malalignments were evaluated by kinematic analyses of videos (Willet) and in silico 3D modeling (Curlew).

The Willet's left tarsometatarsus exhibited an angular malalignment of 70°, resulting in a limping gait that was less pronounced at high than at low walking speed. The bird seemed unable to club the toes of the left foot together, apparently a secondary effect of the deformity. The Curlew's tibiotarsus showed an angular and an axial malalignment, causing the foot to rotate outwards when the intertarsal joint was flexed. Despite the severe effects of their injuries, the birds had survived at least long enough for the fractures to heal completely.

Somewhat unexpectedly, leg fractures are not necessarily fatal in long-legged waders, even if deformities occur in the healing process. Bipedal locomotion on vegetated grounds must have been impeded due to the bone malalignments in both analyzed cases. The birds probably alleviated the impact of their handicaps by shifting a larger proportion of their activities to vegetation-free habitats.

Birds produce alarm calls to convey information about threats. Some Passerine alarm calls consist of several note strings, but few studies have examined their function. Previous studies have shown that Japanese Tits (Parus minor) can alter the calling rate and number and combination of notes in response to predators. We previously found the combinations of note types in Japanese Tit alarm calls to be significantly different in response to the Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) and Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus).

Through playback experiments, we tested whether the note strings in Japanese Tit alarm calls to the Common Cuckoo have different functions in conveying information. The note strings of selected alarm calls were divided into the categories of C and D, and different calls were then constructed separately based on the two note string categories. Original alarm calls (C-D), C calls and D calls were played back to male Japanese Tits during the incubation period.

Male Japanese Tits had a significantly stronger response to C calls than to C-D calls, and they showed a significantly stronger response to both C and C-D calls than to D calls, suggesting that Japanese Tits discriminated between the C and D calls.

Our study demonstrated that the C- and D-category note strings of Japanese Tit alarm calls to the Common Cuckoo have different functions, which supports the previous finding that different note strings in an alarm call can provide different information to receivers. However, the exact meanings of these note strings are not yet known, and further investigation is therefore required.

The motivation of birds to proceed with migration is associated with both endogenous and exogenous factors. According to their migratory situation and to the characteristics of stopover sites, birds might exhibit migratory motivation differently among sites. Although migratory motivation of migrating birds has been well studied in many species, the investigation of the same species in different migratory situations and at different stopover sites is still limited. We predicted that birds at different stopover sites could differ in migratory disposition, including expression of migratory restlessness and responses to environmental cues.

Here we compared migration motivation and orientation of Great Knots (Calidris tenuirostris) at two stopover sites, Chongming Dongtan in the south Yellow Sea, which is a temporary rest site, and Yalujiang Estuary Wetland in the north Yellow Sea, which is a critical refuelling site, during northward migration. Modified Emlen funnels, with thermal paper inside to record scratches of the birds, were used to detect activity (intensity and direction) of birds. Environmental conditions, including wind direction and speed, cloud cover, tide condition, times of the day (before and after sunset) were recorded during experiments. Generalized linear models were used to detect the effects of endogenous and exogenous factors on the migratory motivation of the birds.

In the south Yellow Sea, the migratory activity intensity of Great Knots was positively related to wind assistance. In the north Yellow Sea, where birds exhibited higher intensity of migratory activity than in the south, the intensity increased and the motivation to initiate migration grew stronger as the season advanced. The Great Knots exhibited wind-related orientation behaviour in the funnels at both sites.

The results suggest that the intensity of migratory motivation differed between the two sites. Departure decisions of Great Knots appear to be affected mainly by external factors at the temporary rest site in the south Yellow Sea but possibly by endogenous factors at the final pre-breeding refuelling site in the north Yellow Sea.

The behavior of cranes reflects many of their survival strategies, but little has been known of the incubation strategies of cranes, in which both parents share incubation duties, in response to cold temperatures in alpine environments. The lack of information may restrict the effective conservation of the threatened Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis), a biparental bird nesting in high elevation wetlands.

We directly observed and used infrared video cameras from 2014 to 2015 to study the incubation behavior and quantitatively measured the frequency and details of egg turning behavior in the Black-necked Crane at the Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve in western Gansu Province, China.

At lower ambient temperatures in the morning, crane parents spent more time on the nest with less recess frequency and prolonged on-bout duration, while at higher temperatures around noon, the parents had more frequent recesses from incubation and shorter periods between nest exchanges. They adjusted the amount of time incubating by varying the recess frequency and the length of on-bout duration. Mean nest attendance and egg turning frequency of females were significantly higher than those of the males. The nest attendance and on-bout duration of females showed a significantly negative relationship with those of males. The two parents responded differently to the change of temperature. Females spent more time on the nest at lower morning temperatures, while males increased their time on the nest at higher temperatures after noon. Higher incubation recess frequency and egg turning frequency were observed at noon, probably because parents spent more time foraging, taking advantage of the lower egg cooling rate.

Both Black-necked Crane parents in the alpine environment adjusted their behavior in response to the thermal requirements of eggs and the weather conditions experienced. Our findings demonstrate that parents of this species incubated in different but complementary ways and efficiently enhanced egg care in a dynamic environment, so as to maximize benefits from the warm portion of the day and the intense solar radiation while minimizing the cost of rewarming eggs and the risks of cooling eggs.

In temperate-breeding birds, individuals must adjust their physiological states from one life-history stage to another in response to changing conditions to maximize ecological fitness. Previous evidences have shown that body mass, size-corrected mass (SCM), and hematocrit (Hct) could be used as estimates of the energetic state of individuals to illustrate life-history trade-offs and individual quality in field physiology. Plasma alkaline phosphatase (ALP) plays critical roles in regulating the metabolism of energy but very limited information is known on its link with body mass or Hct.

We determined the changes of plasma ALP levels in both early breeding and wintering stages of male Eurasian Tree Sparrows (Passer montanus), and examined the relationships between ALP and body mass, SCM, and Hct of the birds.

Our study showed that (1) in male Eurasian Tree Sparrows, body mass did not vary with life-history stage but plasma ALP activity significantly increased in the wintering stage compared to the breeding stage; (2) ALP activity was not correlated with individual body mass but was positively correlated with individual SCM and Hct. Such positive correlations, however, only occurred in the wintering but not in the breeding stages.

Our results suggest that plasma ALP activities in free-living birds can be used as one of the indicators of body condition or nutritional status for analyzing individual variation in the wintering but not in the breeding stages. The life-history dependent relationships between plasma ALP activity and body condition may contribute to our better understanding of the trade-off between individual survival and reproduction in free-living animals.

Waterbirds are globally declining as a result of habitat loss, alteration or degradation. Fishing activities may affect waterbird distribution, abundance and diversity, and traditional fishing activities often enhance waterbird abundance. We tested this hypothesis by studying the abundance and diversity of selected common waterbird species in the Kadalundi–Vallikkunnu Community Reserve, a globally significant wetland in southwestern India in relation to fishing activities.

We monitored waterbird abundance four times a month from 2012 to 2015 using direct observation method during low tide. Traditional bamboo fish traps were deployed during the first and third weeks of each month. ANOVAs (one-way and multi-way) were used to examine how waterbird counts diversity varied in relation to years, seasons and period of fishing traps. Additionally we conducted a linear regression to examine the relationship between fish occurrence and waterbird counts and diversity.

Waterbird counts varied with years and seasons, with the maximum counts being recorded during the postmonsoon (winter). Individual species varied in their responses to trap deployment. Small waterbird species usually forage in shallow shorelines, increased during trap deployment whereas the larger waterbirds were not affected by trap deployment because they tend to hunt in deeper waters. The total fish captured was an important predictor of both waterbird abundance and diversity.

In this study we documented a positive association between traditional fish trap deployment and waterbird counts and diversity. Providing high quality habitats for waterbirds as well as effective sustainable livelihoods through traditional fisheries is a critical management issue.

The adjustment of sex ratios in birds can occur at the egg and nestling stages. Previous studies showed that the sex ratio was affected by environmental factors and parental condition; it may result in seasonal and ecosystem differences.

In this study, the brood sex ratio of the Yellow-bellied Prinia (Prinia flaviventris) in the Nonggang area, Guangxi, southwestern China, was investigated during the breeding season from May to June in 2013 using PCR amplification from whole-genome DNA extracted from blood samples. A total of 31 nests of Yellow-bellied Prinia, including 132 brood fledglings and 31 pairs, were sampled.

The results showed that the brood sex ratio of the Yellow-bellied Prinia was 1:1, and sex ratios of different nests were evenly distributed within the study area. No significant relationship was found between parental quality and nest characteristics with the brood sex ratio.

The present study indicated that no brood sex ratio bias in the Yellow-bellied Prinia highlighted the complexity of sex ratio adjustment in birds. In spite of our negative results, the lack of an association between brood sex ratio and parental quality and environmental factors in the Yellow-bellied Prinia provides valuable information on the adjustment of sex ratios in birds.

Nests are composed of and built with different materials that are handled in specific ways. These mate? rials must initially have been used de novo before commonly being incorporated into nests. Plastic and plastic bags were invented in the 1950s, and they are widely distributed in the environment. Birds started picking up plastic from plastic used to cover farm produce such as silage, potatoes, beets and other crops for use in their nests in the 1960s.

I recorded the frequency of such plastic use by the Blackbird (Turdus merula) in nests in Denmark, starting in 1966, followed by a peak in use in the 1970s and a subsequent decline.

Nests with plastic were initially built earlier in the season than those without plastic, indicating an associa? tion between innovation and early reproduction. Plastic use was subsequently selected against because nests with plastic suffered from higher rates of predation than nests without plastic, probably because nests with plastic were easier to locate. However, the elevated risk of nest predation only applied to outdoor nests, but not to nests inside buildings, probably because visually searching nest predators such as corvids do not enter buildings.

These findings show that the dynamics of nest material use depend on the benefits of innovation and the fitness costs of nest predation.

The Emei Shan Liocichla (Liocichla omeiensis) is an endemic bird species to southwestern China with a small geographic range. However, little was known about the genetic status of this threatened species.

We applied restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq) for rapid mass identification of microsatellite markers of the Emei Shan Liocichla.

A total of 11, 564 microsatellite sequences were obtained, 600 random loci were designed for screening and 24 polymorphic microsatellite loci were selected for further validation. The average allele number, average observed heterozygosity and average expected heterozygosity were relatively low in our samples, which were 6.08, 0.6618 and 0.7048, respectively, indicating that the Emei Shan Liocichla might have lost some genetic diversity. Further analyses suggested that the populations distributed on two mountains (Daxiangling and Xiaoliangshan) showed a modest degree of genetic differentiation.

These novel microsatellite markers provided valuable preliminary knowledge regarding the genetic status of the Emei Shan Liocichla and can be useful in further studies, as well as in the management and conservation of this species.

The aim of the study was to explore the ecological diversity of wild birds in Siberia, which are the natural reservoir of avian influenza virus (AIV).

Cloacal swabs and intestinal fragments were collected from wild migratory birds from 2007-2014. Isolated viruses were grown in the allantoic cavity of embryonated chicken eggs. The presence of virus was determined using hemagglutination assays. Primary identification and subtyping of influenza viruses was confirmed by RT-PCR.

A total of 2300 samples obtained from wild migratory birds of 8 orders were collected and tested. Influenza was detected in 185 birds of 3 orders. Species of family Anatidae (order Anseriformes) such as European Teal (Anas crecca), Garganey Teal (A. querquedula), and Shoveler (A. clypeata) play the main role in AIV circulation in the south of Western Siberia. The proportion of viral carriers among waterfowl ranged from 5.6 to 20% in 2007-2014. The order Charadriiformes had lower virus isolation rates of not more than 1.4%.

Wild migratory waterfowl of orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes are the main reservoir of AIV in the south of Western Siberia. This area plays a key role in persistence, evolution, and geographical distribution of avian influenza.

How do Orange River Francolins (Scleroptila levaillantoides) adapt to an intensive farming landscape with grass (grazing) camps and crop cultivation? To answer this question, a study was carried out in south-east of Johannesburg in South Africa to clarify the interaction of francolins with a landscape consisting of land use mosaics.

A transect-road of 45 km was traversed weekly during November 2015–October 2016 through flat maize (Zea mays) and cattle (Bos primigenius) grazing fields. Francolins were counted in three land use mosaic types along the transect-road (including the road): grass camps on both sides of the road (grass/grass edges); arable fields on both sides (arable/arable edges) and arable land on one side with grass camps on the opposite side of the road (arable/ grass edges).

Francolins used all three mosaic types, but the arable/arable edges were least frequented. Nonetheless, the arable/arable edges played an important part: francolins, including females with chicks, moved along the arable/arable edges, which enabled contact between sub-populations, and the arable/arable edges provided temporary cover (e.g. stubble and maize plants) and ploughed firebreaks to forage (e.g. for bulbs).

Cultivation of crop within grasslands does not constrain breeding, movement and habitat use by the Orange River Francolin. For conservation purposes it is critical that the fine-scale mosaic of grazing and cultivation areas remain intact.

Physiological preparation for reproduction in small passerines involves the increased secretion of reproductive hormones, elevation of the metabolic rate and energy storage, all of which are essential for reproduction. However, it is unclear whether the timing of the physiological processes involved is the same in resident and migrant species that breed in the same area. To answer this question, we compared temporal variation in the plasma concentration of luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone (T), estradiol (E₂), triiothyronine (T₃) and body mass, between a migrant species, the Eurasian Skylark (Alauda arvensis) and a resident species, the Asian Short-toed Lark (Calandrella cheleensis), both of which breed in northeastern Inner Mongolia, China, during the 2014 and 2015 breeding seasons.

Twenty adult Eurasian Skylarks and twenty Asian Short-toed Larks were captured on March 15, 2014 and 2015 and housed in out-door aviaries. Plasma LH, T (males), E₂ (females), T₃ and the body mass of each bird were measured every six days from March 25 to May 6.

With the exception of T, which peaked earlier in the Asian Short-toed Lark in 2014, plasma concentrations of LH, T, E₂ and T₃ of both species peaked at almost the same time. However, Asian Short-toed Larks attained peak body mass earlier than Eurasian Skylarks. Plasma T₃ concentrations peaked 12 days earlier than plasma LH in both species. Generally, plasma LH, T, E₂, T₃ and body mass, peaked earlier in both species in 2014 than 2015.

The timing of pre-reproductive changes in the endocrine system and energy metabolism can be the same in migrant and resident species; however, residents may accumulate energy reserves faster than migrants. Although migration does not affect the timing of pre-breeding reproductive and metabolic changes, migrant species may need more time to increase their body mass. T levels in resident species may be accelerated by higher spring temperatures that may also advance the pre-breeding preparation of both migrants and residents.

The foraging and diving behavior of waterfowl are affected by a number of important factors. Hence, learning more about these major factors is of great concern in order to protect endangered species. In this study, we verified the effect of sex, temperature, time and flock size on the diving behavior of the Scaly-sided Merganser (Mergus squamatus).

The study was conducted by means of focal animal sampling in the Wuyuan section of the Poyang Lake watershed in Jiangxi Province, China from December 2015 to March 2016. We used one-way ANOVA and LSD tests to investigate the differences among these factors. Pearson correlations were used to test the relation between pause duration and the previous or subsequent dive duration. The relations between these factors and dive/pause duration are illustrated using Spearman correlations.

Mean dive duration and mean time on the pause of males were significantly higher than those of females. With an increase in temperature, dive duration significantly increased. Along with the passage of time of year and daytime, dive duration significantly increased, while dive duration decreased significantly with the increase in flock size.

Sex, temperature, time and flock size have an effect on the diving behavior of the wintering Scaly-sided Merganser. The difference of diving behavior between males and females is related to differences in body mass. The difference of diving behavior among various temperatures and time periods may be related to a low minimum rate of oxygen consumption, while the difference among various flock sizes may be caused by rising intraspecific competition.

The Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus) is a species that relies heavily on the plateau wetlands of Asia and whose population was thought to be declining. Over the past decade, south-central Tibet, one of the most important wintering grounds, supported large numbers of Bar-headed Geese, but the population had not been regularly monitored in this area.

We surveyed wintering Bar-headed Geese along the Yarlung Zangbo, Lhasa and Nyang Qu rivers, the three major river valleys and their tributaries in south-central Tibet in January 2014 and recorded their location, flock size and habitat utilization. Based on these data and the latest wintering counts elsewhere, we revised the population estimate for this species.

We recorded more than 67, 000 Bar-headed Geese in south-central Tibet during January 2014. By geographic area, the geese were most abundant in the Lhasa River valley (38.5%) and the Nyang Qu River valley (31.0%), and by administrative division in Lhunzhub (27.2%) and Shigatse (26.7%). Bar-headed Geese were most often observed feeding in winter wheat fields and ploughed fields, resting on pastureland and marshes. The approximate number of 67, 000 geese recorded in Tibet is more than four times the estimate of 1993 for the same region and exceeds the most recent world population estimate of 52, 000-60, 000. Based on our work in Tibet and the latest wintering counts available from other areas, we revised the estimated population size of this species to 97, 000-118, 000.

Our result reveals a remarkable increase in the number of Bar-headed Geese wintering in south-central Tibet. This population increase most likely stems from a proliferation of cropland and especially winter wheat fields in south-central Tibet. This habitat improvement may also cause short-stopping of the Bar-headed Goose and thus reduce mortality of the geese that would otherwise undertake a somewhat daunting trans-Himalayan migration.

World-wide grassland birds are in decline due to habitat loss and degradation resulting from intensive agricultural practices. Understanding how key grassland habitat attributes determine grassland bird densities is required to make appropriate conservation decisions. We examine drivers of bird densities in a South African grassland area that has been managed for biodiversity conservation with reduced grazing pressure.

We estimated the density of the eight most common grassland bird species encountered in our area to evaluate the effects of recent grassland management changes on the avifauna. We collected data on birds and habitat from the austral summers of 2006/2007, 2007/2008 and 2010/2011. We used hierarchical distance sampling methods to estimate density of birds relative to two main habitat variables, i.e., grass cover and height. In addition, we used regression splines within these distance sampling models as a more flexible description of suitable ranges of grass height and cover for each species.

For most species, density is related to grass height and cover as expected. The African Quailfinch (Ortygospiza atricollis) and Common Quail (Coturnix coturnix) preferred relatively short and open grass. The Yellow-breasted Pipit (Anthus chloris), African Pipit (Anthus cinnamomeus) and Red-capped Lark (Calandrella cinerea) preferred short and relatively dense grass, while the Wing-snapping Cisticola (Cisticola ayresii) preferred grass of intermediate height and cover. The Cape Longclaw (Macronyx capensis) and Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis) preferred tall and dense grass. Our results agree with previous studies that grass height combined with grass cover are the most important habitat features that managers should manipulate in order to increase the density of target species. The regression splines show that the effect of these two habitat variables on density is well described by linear relationships for most species.

This study supports previous studies suggesting that grazing and fire are important tools for management to use in order to create a mosaic of grass height and cover that would support high densities of desired species. We suggest that conservation managers of these grasslands combine fire and grazing as management tools to create suitable habitats for grassland birds in general.

The Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Linnaeus, 1758 is the most widespread pheasant in the world and widely introduced as a game bird. Increasing needs for conservation genetics and management of both wild and captive populations require permanent genetic resources, such as polymorphic microsatellites in order to genotype individuals and populations.

In this study, 7598 novel polymorphic microsatellites for the Common Pheasant were isolated using a RAD-seq approach at an Illumina high-throughput sequencing platform. A panel of ten novel microsatellites and three existing ones from the chicken genome were multiplexed and genotyped on a set of 90 individuals of Common Pheasants (representing nine subspecies and ten individuals each) and 10 individuals of the Green Pheasant (P. versicolor).

These 13 microsatellites exhibited moderate to high levels of polymorphism, with the number of alleles per locus ranging from 2 to 8 and expected heterozygosities from 0.049 to 0.905. The first analysis of the genetic structure of subspecies/populations using a Bayesian clustering approach, implemented in STRUCTURE, showed two genetic clusters, corresponding to both the Green and the Common Pheasant, with further evidence of subpopulation structuring within the Common Pheasants.

These markers are useful genetic tools for sustainable uses and evolutionary studies in these two Phasianus pheasants and probably other closely related game birds.

The Slender-billed Parakeet (Enicognathus leptorhynchus) is a psittacine endemic to southern Chile and an obligate secondary cavity-nester. In the central valley of southern Chile, most (94%) of the known Slender-billed Parakeet nests have occurred in large, mature southern beech (Lophozonia obliqua) trees (locally known as "pellines"). As relicts of the original old-growth forests of southern Chile, most pellines have been lost due to extensive land-clearing throughout the region, potentially threatening long-term persistence of the Slender-billed Parakeet.

We conducted our study in the central valley of southern Chile, near the city of Osorno during three consecutive nesting seasons (November–January, 2008–2011). Nest trees used by Slender-billed Parakeets were located by direct observation of parakeet activities and through interviews with local residents, some of whom were former parrot nest poachers. Nest cavities were accessed, inspected and measured using single-rope climbing techniques. We report means, standard errors, 95% confidence intervals and ranges for 11 cavity-related variables. We also report clutch sizes encountered in active nests, and age estimates of nest trees based on known growth rates of Lophozonia trees in southern Chile. Linear regressions were used to evaluate potential relationships between cavity-related variables and clutch size.

We located and measured 38 Lophozonia tree cavities used for nesting by Slender-billed Parakeets. Compared to those used by other psittacines, nest trees were relatively large, averaging 30.4 ± 1.1 m in height with a mean diameter at breast height of 134.5 ± 4.7 cm. Based on estimated annual diameter increment, ages of nest trees ranged from approximately 209–485 years. Nest cavities entrances averaged 12.5 ± 0.9 m in height above ground level. Cavity entrance widths averaged 51.0 ± 13.3 cm (vertical) by 11.5 ± 0.7 cm (horizontal). Cavity entrance orientations were apparently random, with no directional preferences detected. Nest cavities were also relatively large, with a mean internal diameter of 39.6 ± 2.4 cm and mean depth of 90.3 ± 24.2 cm. Clutch sizes (2–9) were unusually large for psittacines of this size (ca. 280–300 g) and broods of up to seven well-developed nestlings were observed.

We found that the deep and spacious cavities provided by pellines facilitate successful rearing of large broods, thereby maximizing productivity and fitness. The existence of pellines has apparently allowed Slender-billed Parakeets to adapt successfully to a wholesale loss of ancestral habitat to anthropogenic modifications. Immediate and strategic conservation measures, such as protection of existing pellines and the regeneration and recruitment of additional ones, are recommended for ensuring the survival of Slender-billed Parakeet populations throughout the central valley of southern Chile.

While agriculture has taken much environmental water in Australia's Murray-Darling Basin, agricultural expansion has resulted in a vast number of farm dams, almost three-quarters of a million in the Murray-Darling Basin alone.

Over a summer we studied (1) waterbird abundance and species richness and (2) the influence of biophysical and landscape characteristics across 49 farm dams at a large mixed-enterprise farm in northern Victoria on the southern reach of the Murray-Darling Basin.

On average, dams were found to host 27.1 ± 71.1 individuals/ha and 1.8 ± 2.9 species per pond. Such densities are comparable to those on natural wetlands. Dam surface area and perimeter and amount of vegetation were positively and strongly correlated with the Rallidae density (birds/ha), but no other parameters were strongly correlated with any other functional group. The landscape in which the dams were embedded had a highly significant effect (p < 0.001) on the number of birds found on a dam.

Our research needs to be complemented with further studies in other parts of the Basin and on other taxa, but given at our site they supported similar densities of individuals and species to natural wetlands, and given the fact that there are 710, 539 farm dams in the Murray-Darling Basin, which hosts much of Australia's waterbird fauna, it is reasonable to suggest that farm dams are overlooked, and possibly very important, avian biodiversity hotspots. It also highlights the importance of a landscape setting, in which dams are situated, on the number of birds using the dams.

Geographic variation in body size is assumed to reflect adaptation to local environmental conditions. Although Bergmann's rule is usually sufficient to explain such variation in homeotherms, some exceptions have been documented. The relationship between altitude, latitude and body size, has been well documented for some vertebrate taxa during the past decades. However, relatively little information is available on the effects of climate variables on body size in birds.

We collected the data of 267 adult Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) specimens sampled at 48 localities in China's mainland, and further investigated the relationships between two response variables, body mass and wing length, as well as a suit of explanatory variables, i.e. altitude, latitude, mean annual temperature (MAT), annual precipitation (PRC), annual sunshine hours (SUN), average annual wind speed (WS), air pressure (AP) and relative humidity (RH).

Our study showed that (1) although the sexes did not differ significantly in body mass, males had longer wings than females; (2) body mass and wing length were positively correlated with altitude but not with latitude; (3) body mass and wing length were negatively correlated with AP and RH, but not significantly correlated with WS. Body mass was positively correlated with SUN and inversely correlated with MAT. Wing length was not correlated with MAT in either sex, but was positively correlated with SUN and negatively correlated with PRC in male sparrows; (4) variation in body mass could be best explained by AP and SUN, whereas variation in wing length could be explained by RH and AP in both sexes. In addition, variation in male sparrows can be explained by SUN, WS and PRC but not in females.

Two different proxies of body size, body mass and wing length, correlated with same geographic factors and different climate factors. These differences may reflect selection for heat conservation in the case of body mass, and for efficient flight in the case of wing length.

Individuality in vocalizations may provide an effective tool for surveying populations of the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) but there remains few data on which technique to use to identify individuality. In this research, we compared the within- and between-individual variation in cuckoo calls using two different analytical methods, and discuss the feasibility of using call individuality to count male cuckoos within a population.

We recorded vocalization from 13 males, and measured 15 spectro-temporal variables for each call. The majority of these call variables (n = 12) have greater variation between individuals than within individual. We first calculated the similarity (Pearson's R) for each paired calls in order to find a threshold that could distinguish calls emitted from the same or different males, and then counted the number of males based on this distinction. Second, we used the more widely accepted technique of discriminant function analysis (DFA) to identify individual male cuckoos, and compared the correct rate of classifying individuals between the two analytical methods.

Similarity of paired calls from the same male was significantly higher than from different males. Under a relatively broad threshold interval, we achieved a high (> 90%) correct rate to distinguish calls and an accurate estimate of male numbers. Based on banded males (n = 3), we found the similarity of paired calls from different days was lower when compared with paired calls from the same day, but this change did not obscure individual identification, as similarity values of paired calls from different days were still larger than the threshold used to distinguish calls from the same or different males. DFA also yielded a high rate (91.9%) of correct classification of individuals.

Our study suggests that identifying individual vocalizations can form the basis of an appropriate survey method for counting male cuckoos within a population, provided the performance of different analytical techniques are compared.

Accurately assigning hatchlings to the eggs from which they hatched is a prerequisite to understanding how the composition and environment of eggs affect the growth and survival of nestlings. Correctly assigning hatchlings to their eggs can be a challenging endeavor, however, because multiple eggs within the same clutch can hatch at essentially the same time. Egg and hatchling mass are highly correlated in most bird species, and thus assigning eggs to hatchlings using their relative mass (e.g., matching the heaviest hatchling to the heaviest candidate egg) could prove extremely useful.

To assess its potential utility, I applied relative mass assignment (RMA) retrospectively to a dataset of 133 Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) nests in which all egg-hatchling dyads were determined unequivocally.

I found that RMA correctly assigned approximately 90% of hatchlings to their eggs when 2-4 hatchlings were present between checks. The number of nests in which hatchlings could not be assigned to their egg, however, increased monotonically from 13 to 46 to 78% for nests containing 2, 3, and 4 hatchlings, respectively, due to the greater likelihood that the mass of hatchlings or their candidate eggs was identical.

Although RMA correctly identified the vast majority of egg-hatchling dyads, researchers should use this method with caution, because it will always inflate positive egg-size effects and thus could potentially result in erroneously reporting significant effects.