| Citation: |
Michele PANUCCIO, Nicolantonio AGOSTINI. 2010: Comparison of the water-crossing behavior of Western Marsh Harriers (Circus aeruginosus) and European Honey Buzzards (Pernis apivorus) during autumn migration. Avian Research, 1(1): 30-35. DOI: 10.5122/cbirds.2009.0003
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We investigated the water-crossing behavior of Western Marsh Harriers (Circus aeruginosus), mostly adults, and European Honey Buzzards (Pernis apivorus), mostly juveniles, in relation to wind conditions, time of the day, flocking and age classes, at a watchsite in central Italy during the autumn migration en route to Africa. Although European Honey Buzzards are less suited than Western Marsh Harriers to undertake long sea crossings, they were more inclined to leave the coast when migrating in flocks. Few birds of both species chose to fly along the coast. Western Marsh Harriers, such as European Honey Buzzards migrating alone, undertook the water crossing rather than stopping migration (birds roosting at the site or flying back inland) during the absence of wind and vice versa during head winds. Conversely, European Honey Buzzards migrating in flocks were not affected in their decision (crossing or stopping migration) by wind direction. Both species undertook the water crossing rather than stopping migration during mornings and vice versa during afternoons. Finally, in both species, adults and juveniles showed the same behavior in front of a water barrier. This result was expected in the case of the Western Marsh Harrier but not from the European Honey Buzzard since, in this species, the water-crossing tendency is age dependent with adults avoiding sea crossings. Our study confirms that flocking significantly affects the water-crossing behavior of European Honey Buzzards during migration. Moreover, in this species, inexperience of juveniles and presumably younger adults, about the high energetic costs of long powered flight and about the existence of shorter routes over water, might explain the strong water-crossing tendency shown by migrants independently from their age.
Habitat fragmentation is always a current issue in research by conservation biologists and ecologists (Lord and Norton, 1990; Robinson et al., 1995; Crooks et al., 1999; Fahrig, 2003; Castellón and Sieving, 2006; Ewers and Didham, 2007). Including birds, many species are affected by fragmented habitats (Andrén, 1994b; Herkert, 1994; Souza and Brown, 1994; Lens et al., 2002). During the last two decades, a number of studies have been conducted on, such as, species richness and abundance on fragmented habitats (Terborgh et al., 2001), the minimum living area of birds (Winter and Faaborg, 1999) and birds migration between fragmented habitats (Wiens, 1994). As well, the pattern of species distribution on fragmented habitats has been widely researched, where nested analysis is the most common method to investigate species distribution patterns on various fragmented habitats (Blake, 1991; Honnay et al., 1999; Lomolino and Perault, 2000; Lindenmayer et al., 2002, 2003; Fischer and Lindenmayer, 2005; Wethered and Lawes, 2005; Feeley et al., 2007). One of the patterns that has been identified is the nestedness of insular biotas; isolated communities often form nested subsets, with species on species-poor islands constituting subsets of those present on richer islands (Patterson and Atmar, 1986). A group of species assemblages is said to be completely nested when the all species making up smaller biotas are also found in all larger ones. It has been shown that nested structures are widely present in all organisms and habitat islands (Wright et al., 1998). To account for nested patterns of species distribution, four general hypotheses have been proposed: 1) passive sampling (Andrén, 1994a; Nielsen and Bascompte, 2007), 2) selective extinction (Patterson, 1984; Lomolino, 1996), 3) selective colonization (Cook and Quinn, 1995; Conroy et al., 1999; Mac Nally et al., 2002) and 4) habitat nestedness (Blake, 1991; Calmé and Desrochers, 1999; Honnay et al., 1999). As passive sampling hypothesis is related to the diversity between species and sampling effect, the others are related to habitat features and species life-history traits.
The most typical karst landscape in the world is found in southwestern Guangxi of China. Karst environments are fragile and very sensitive to human impact and very difficult to restore when destroyed (Tuyet, 2001; Shu et al., 2009). Many of the original local tropical forests have been damaged to varying degrees, causing the forest area and the number of small forest stands to continue to decline, resulting in a shrinkage of species habitat areas (Wu, 2009). At present, the best protected forest areas are in nature reserves in the form of habitat fragments, hence it is a huge challenge to protect species diversity, including birds. Nested analysis of species communities is of special importance in species protection (Patterson, 1987), offering a new perspective on their protection (Chen and Wang, 2004). We have studied distribution patterns of birds in fragmented habitats of the karst area of southwestern Guangxi to explore: 1) if nested patterns of birds in the karst area of southwestern Guangxi exist or not, 2) the factors which are correlated with a nested pattern and the effect of factors on the formation of these nested patterns and 3) some suggestions for the protection of bird species diversity in this karst area.
The karst area is located at 105°29′–108°6′E and 22°9′–23°41′N in the southwest of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in China (Fig. 1), adjacent to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. This area includes nine cities and counties, i.e., the counties Long'an of Nanning city, Jiangzhou, Fusui, Daxing, Tiandeng and Longzhou of Chongzuo city as well as the counties Jingxi, Debao and Napo of Baise city. The total area covers about 1300 km2 (Table 1), of which 56% is of a karst landform. This area is the most typical karst landscape in the world and a global biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000), with rich north tropical biological karst resources. The karst area of southwestern Guangxi is the most important site of global significance among other biodiversity hotspots in China (Chen, 1993). The major landform of southwestern Guangxi is the typical limestone, besides the shale and sandstone landscape. The area is located south of the tropic of cancer and has a north tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual temperature of 18 to 22℃ and rainfall of 1100 –1500 mm. The vegetation is mainly that of a north tropical forest, with small areas of subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests. Because of rapid social and economic development, the original forest vegetation has deteriorated considerably. The remainder of the original forest vegetation is largely preserved in nature reserves in the form of fragmented areas.
| Habitat fragment | Nature reserve | Area (km2) | Distance to nearest larger fragment (m) | Vegetation richness |
| 1 | Qinglongshan nature reserve | 57.2 | 18.7 | 1100 |
| 2 | Nonggang nature reserve * | 54.2 | 7.5 | 1340 |
| 3 | Bangliang nature reserve | 50.7 | 20.4 | 956 |
| 4 | Chunxiu nature reserve | 44.3 | 20.3 | 900 |
| 5 | Huanglianshan nature reserve | 43.6 | 7.5 | 1166 |
| 6 | Gulongshan nature reserve | 40.5 | 34.9 | 1065 |
| 7 | Xialei nature reserve | 35.4 | 52.1 | 1004 |
| 8 | Laohutiao nature reserve | 31.1 | 22.7 | 520 |
| 9 | Encheng nature reserve | 28.7 | 34.9 | 927 |
| 10 | Longhushan nature reserve | 22.5 | 10.2 | 870 |
| 11 | Bapen nature reserve | 20.6 | 37.1 | 231 |
| 12 | Banli nature reserve | 16.8 | 15.2 | 550 |
| 13 | Diding nature reserve | 11.5 | 17.1 | 1000 |
| * Refers to a national nature reserve, the others are regional nature reserves. | ||||
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There are 13 nature reserves in the study area (Nonggang, Chunxiu, Qinglongshan, Bangliang, Diding, Encheng, Xialei, Gulongshan, Longhushan, Laohutiao, Banli, Bapen and Huanglianshan Nature Reserves), from which 13 relatively isolated fragmented areas with less human intervention and well-forested area were selected as our study sites, numbered by size from 1 to 13. Site 3 is in the Sino-Vietnam border area and fragments on both sides of the border were selected as one site. Because of its continuous forest, only the result of our bird survey, conducted on the Guangxi side, was used, but the entire area on both sides of the border was treated as a whole area.
The cover of the study area is dominated by six vegetation types: 1) tropical rain forest, 2) broad-leaved forest, 3) shrub-forest, 4) shrub-grass, 5) farmland and 6) wetland. At each site, line transect method was used for bird survey. Two transect lines were sampled on the wetland, farmland and shrub-grass respectively and four transect lines were sampled on the rain forest, broad-leaved forest and shrub-forest respectively. The main area was covered by these transect lines. During the survey the length and direction of each transect line were adjusted according to the shape and size of each site in order to obtain accurate results.
This study was conducted between June 2009 and September 2010. Days with persistent rain and strong winds were avoided, for under those conditions it would be difficult to record birds. Bird surveys were carried out by using 8 × 42 binoculars from 06:00–10:00 and from 15:00–18:00 local time. Observation points along each 1500 m transect line were arranged and birds observed on both sides of transect and habitat type was recorded at each site. In order to survey the birds accurately in the shrubs, we set 3 m × 5 m mist nets on the edge of the shrubs. Three or five mist nets were set for 3–5 days as a group between 06:00 and 18:00. The mist nets were checked every hour and any birds trapped were recorded and then released. Considering that raptors and water birds are strong flyers with the ability to migrate between fragmented areas, the study was only conducted on resident and breeding birds while omitting raptors and water birds from our survey at each site.
Three habitat variables, area, isolation and vegetation richness of a habitat are commonly considered to greatly affect the distribution pattern of birds (Lomolino and Perault, 2000; Fischer and Lindenmayer, 2005; Wethered and Lawes, 2005; Wang et al., 2010). For our study, three factors are selected as habitat features: area, distance to the nearest larger fragmented area and vegetation richness. We interpreted the distance to the nearest larger fragment as the straight line distance between one fragment and the nearest larger fragment. Vegetation richness is the number of plant species at each fragment, the data was obtained from the scientific survey report of each reserve and several references (Liang et al., 1985; Xie et al., 1994). Google Earth Pro 5.1 was used to evaluate the area and the distance between fragments and vegetation richness was obtained from survey data and a few references (Liang et al., 1985; Xie et al., 1994).
Bird life-history traits have also been proved to affect bird distribution patterns (Cook and Quinn, 1995; Kadmon, 1995; Fischer and Lindenmayer, 2005; Feeley et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2010). The activity ability and body size of birds, and habitat specificity were used to analyze the nested pattern of the birds. The activity ability is interpreted as the mobility of a given species, defined as the dispersal ratio ("dp"; Woinarski, 1989) and calculated for each bird by dividing its mean wing length (mm) by the cubic root of its mean mass (g) (Fischer and Lindenmayer, 2005); the larger the "dp" value, the stronger the mobility of a bird. The body size of birds was obtained from the record of specimens at Guangxi University, Guangxi Academy of Sciences and The Avifauna of Yunnan China, The Avifauna of Guizhou, Fauna Sinica Aves and several references (Zhou and Jiang, 2008; Alström et al., 2010). Habitat specificity refers to the number of habitat types (six habitat types in the current landscape) where each bird species lives. For example, the habitat specificity of one species only found in one habitat type was given the value 1, which meant the species has a narrow distribution range and vice versa.
Based on the data of our bird survey, sites were initially sorted by species richness which determines the ordering of rows, while fragments were sorted by their size, determining the ordering of columns. Given these procedures, a binary code "1/0" was used to show presence/absence of species in each fragment. In the end, a presence-absence matrix was constructed for birds (see Supplementary Table S1).
Species nestedness is currently calculated with the nestedness temperature T, used in the algorithm implemented by the calculator BINMATNEST (binary matrix nestedness temperature calculator; Rodríguez-Gironés and Santamaria, 2006). T provides a standardized measure of matrix disorder by assessing the deviation of an observed matrix from the completely nested. T thus ranges from 0 for a completely nested matrix to 100 for one that is completely disordered (Boecklen, 1997; Wright et al., 1998). The calculator first computes an isocline of perfect order, which is a curve in a completely nested matrix of the same size. BINMATNEST creates three null models to compute the temperature of each random matrix and returns the proportion of matrices with temperature lower than or equal to the temperature of the input matrix. Among these, null model 3 was considered to be able to avoid the effect of passive sampling (Rodríguez-Gironés and Santamaria, 2006; Moore and Swihart, 2007).
The effect of habitat features and species life-history traits on forming a nested pattern was evaluated by a Spearman's rank correlation analysis (Fernández-Juricic, 2004; Schouten et al., 2007).
We used Microsoft Excel 2003 for data calculation and arrangement and other statistical analyses from SPSS 17.0. We followed the usual convention that p < 0.05 means statistically significant differences, p < 0.01 means strongly significant differences and p > 0.05 signifies non-significant differences.
A total of 248 bird species were recorded, belonging to 42 families and 9 orders, including 191 Passeriformes bird species from 30 families. The number of bird species in each fragment ranges between 113 and 183 (see Supplementary Table S1). Among these, 25 bird species, such as the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba), Rufousnecked Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus ruficollis), Redwhiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica), Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis), Greater Coucal (Centropus sinensis) and so on were recorded in all fragments; 42 bird species were only found in one fragment, while 181 bird species were recorded in more than one fragment.
The habitat features of the 13 fragments were recorded as data. The sampling sites ranged from 11.5 to 57.2 km2 in size. The distance of each fragment to the nearest larger fragment was between 7.5 and 52.1 m; the vegetation richness of each fragment was between 231 and 1340 species (Table 1).
It can be seen from Table 2 that bird body weight ranged from 5 to 1400 g, body length was between 81 and 885 mm, the "dp" value ranged from 14.22 to 52.58 and habitat specificity from 1–5; most birds were found in habitat types 2 and 3.
| Species | Body weight (g) | Body length (mm) | Wing length (mm) | dp | Habitat specificity |
| Chinese Francolin (Francolinus pintadeanus) | 365.0 | 320 | 145 | 20.29 | 3 |
| Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis) | 182.0 | 322 | 159 | 28.06 | 4 |
| Large Green-billed Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus tristis) | 117.5 | 502 | 150 | 30.63 | 2 |
| Common Coucal (Centropus sinensis) | 266.6 | 184 | 217 | 33.72 | 4 |
| Lesser Coucal (Centropus bengalensis) | 99.8 | 330 | 160 | 34.49 | 3 |
| Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) | 27.2 | 165 | 70 | 23.28 | 1 |
| White-throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) | 89.6 | 265 | 117 | 26.15 | 2 |
| Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) | 15.6 | 171 | 109 | 43.62 | 4 |
| Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica) | 20.6 | 180 | 117 | 42.68 | 4 |
| White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) | 21.2 | 181 | 90 | 32.52 | 4 |
| Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus) | 29.2 | 205 | 100 | 32.47 | 3 |
| Red-whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) | 30.7 | 194 | 86 | 27.47 | 4 |
| Chinese Bulbul (Pycnonotus sinensis) | 35.5 | 190 | 90 | 27.38 | 4 |
| Black Bulbul (Hypsipetes leucocephalus) | 54.6 | 237 | 121 | 31.89 | 3 |
| Long-tailed Shrike (Lanius schach) | 58.3 | 261 | 105 | 27.08 | 3 |
| Red-billed Blue Magpie (Urocissa erythrorhyncha) | 170.8 | 555 | 190 | 34.24 | 3 |
| Taiwan Whistling Thrush (Myophoneus caeruleus) | 184.0 | 303 | 173 | 30.42 | 2 |
| Hwamei (Garrulax canorus) | 68.4 | 233 | 93 | 22.74 | 3 |
| Rufous-necked Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus ruficollis) | 25.1 | 190 | 74 | 25.27 | 5 |
| Rufous-capped Babbler (Stachyris ruficeps) | 9.6 | 109 | 52 | 24.47 | 5 |
| Grey-cheeked Fulvetta (Alcippe morrisonia) | 16.0 | 136 | 63 | 25.00 | 3 |
| Yellow-bellied Prinia (Prinia flaviventris) | 7.4 | 136 | 44 | 22.58 | 4 |
| Common Tailorbird (Orthotomus sutorius) | 8.0 | 113 | 45 | 22.50 | 5 |
| Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonicus) | 10.5 | 104 | 55 | 25.12 | 3 |
| Great Tit (Parus major) | 13.7 | 129 | 67 | 28.00 | 5 |
| Hair-crested Drongo (Dicrurus hottentottus) | 88.8 | 311 | 172 | 38.55 | 2 |
| Crested Myna (Acridotheres cristatellus) | 125.2 | 243 | 138 | 27.59 | 3 |
| Fork-tailed Sunbird (Aethopyga christinae) | 6.2 | 103 | 49 | 26.67 | 3 |
| Silver Pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) | 1400.0 | 885 | 250 | 22.35 | 3 |
| White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) | 246.0 | 322 | 170 | 27.13 | 3 |
| White-throated Bulbul (Alophoixus pallidus) | 50.8 | 235 | 110 | 29.70 | 2 |
| Green-winged Bulbul (Hypsipetes mcclellandii) | 40.3 | 232 | 106 | 30.92 | 2 |
| Grey Bushchat (Saxicola ferrea) | 12.3 | 136 | 64 | 27.73 | 3 |
| Hill Prinia (Prinia atrogularis) | 10.6 | 163 | 46 | 20.94 | 3 |
| Plain Prinia (Prinia inornata) | 9.9 | 149 | 45 | 20.96 | 3 |
| Black-throated Tit (Aegithalos concinnus) | 6.4 | 100 | 48 | 25.85 | 3 |
| Black-naped Oriole (Oriolus chinensis) | 78.3 | 247 | 152 | 35.53 | 3 |
| Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) | 990.0 | 633 | 224 | 22.48 | 3 |
| Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) | 103.0 | 324 | 189 | 40.32 | 2 |
| Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris) | 37.2 | 254 | 136 | 40.74 | 2 |
| House Swift (Apus nipalensis) | 26.6 | 139 | 132 | 44.22 | 3 |
| Sooty-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus aurigaster) | 48.7 | 211 | 97 | 26.56 | 3 |
| Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis) | 38.4 | 204 | 96 | 28.46 | 3 |
| Hainan Blue Flycatcher (Niltava hainanus) | 13.9 | 138 | 69 | 28.70 | 3 |
| Black-naped Monarch (Hypothymis azurea) | 12.5 | 143 | 72 | 31.02 | 3 |
| Striated Yuhina (Yuhina castaniceps) | 13.0 | 130 | 56 | 23.82 | 2 |
| Plain Flowerpecker (Dicaeum concolor) | 6.8 | 81 | 46 | 24.28 | 3 |
| Blue Rock Thrush (Monticola solitarius) | 49.4 | 211 | 120 | 32.70 | 3 |
| Grey-chinned Minivet (Pericrocotus solaris) | 17.3 | 181 | 84 | 32.48 | 2 |
| Collared Finchbill (Spizixos semitorques) | 40.5 | 196 | 90 | 26.21 | 2 |
| Chestnut Bulbul (Hemixos castanonotus) | 34.7 | 206 | 101 | 30.97 | 3 |
| Black-throated Laughingthrush (Garrulax chinensis) | 91.0 | 230 | 110 | 24.46 | 2 |
| Orange-bellied Leafbird (Chloropsis hardwickii) | 33.5 | 185 | 90 | 27.92 | 2 |
| Dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis) | 131.7 | 264 | 185 | 36.36 | 2 |
| Large-billed Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) | 525.6 | 475 | 326 | 40.40 | 3 |
| Great Barbet (Megalaima virens) | 190.2 | 333 | 140 | 24.34 | 2 |
| Black-winged Cuckoo Shrike (Coracina melaschistos) | 37.6 | 227 | 117 | 34.92 | 2 |
| Blyth's Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus reguloides) | 7.6 | 104 | 60 | 30.52 | 3 |
| Crow-billed Drongo (Dicrurus annectans) | 60.5 | 269 | 142 | 36.17 | 2 |
| Silver-eared Mesia (Leiothrix argentauris) | 26.0 | 168 | 76 | 25.65 | 2 |
| Red-billed Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea) | 21.5 | 142 | 66 | 23.74 | 2 |
| Larger white-rumped Swift (Apus pacificus) | 37.5 | 178 | 176 | 52.58 | 3 |
| Ring-necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) | 1135.0 | 747 | 232 | 22.24 | 2 |
| Chinese Bamboo Partridge (Bambusicola thoracica) | 271.0 | 308 | 131 | 20.24 | 3 |
| Grey-headed Woodpecker (Picus canus) | 144.7 | 304 | 150 | 28.57 | 2 |
| Rosy Minivet (Pericrocotus roseus) | 19.1 | 186 | 88 | 32.92 | 2 |
| Rusty-capped Fulvetta (Alcippe dubia) | 20.0 | 146 | 62 | 22.84 | 2 |
| White-bellied Yuhina (Yuhina zantholeuca) | 12.5 | 118 | 67 | 28.87 | 2 |
| White-browed Rufous (Piculet Sasia ochracea) | 8.5 | 89 | 55 | 26.95 | 3 |
| Bianchi's Warbler (Seicercus valentini) | 7.3 | 110 | 54 | 27.84 | 3 |
| Small Niltava (Niltava macgrigoriae) | 11.0 | 128 | 64 | 28.78 | 3 |
| Yellow-bellied Sunbird (Cinnyris jugularis) | 7.5 | 107 | 51 | 26.05 | 2 |
| Ashy Wood Swallow (Artamus fuscus) | 40.0 | 178 | 127 | 37.14 | 3 |
| Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica) | 121.0 | 233 | 139 | 28.10 | 2 |
| White-throated Fantail (Rhipidura albicollis) | 11.0 | 177 | 78 | 35.07 | 2 |
| Blue-winged Siva (Minla cyanouroptera) | 18.0 | 151 | 64 | 24.42 | 3 |
| Spectacled Laughingthrush (Eudynamys scolopaceus) | 218.0 | 427 | 202 | 33.56 | 3 |
| Yellow-billed Bay Woodpecker (Blythipicus pyrrhotis) | 117.0 | 254 | 135 | 27.60 | 2 |
| Striped Tit Babbler (Macronous gularis) | 10.7 | 123 | 54 | 24.51 | 3 |
| Rufous Woodpecker (Celeus brachyurus) | 92.0 | 230 | 120 | 26.58 | 2 |
| Fujian Niltava (Niltava davidi) | 24.8 | 170 | 91 | 31.20 | 3 |
| Sulphur-breasted Warbler (Phylloscopus ricketti) | 7.0 | 97 | 57 | 29.80 | 2 |
| Bar-winged Flycatcher Shrike (Hemipus picatus) | 9.4 | 139 | 64 | 30.33 | 3 |
| Red Turtle Dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica) | 111.3 | 231 | 138 | 28.69 | 2 |
| Golden-throated Barbet (Megalaima franklinii) | 81.8 | 217 | 98 | 22.58 | 2 |
| Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher (Culicicapa ceylonensis) | 10.4 | 120 | 62 | 28.40 | 3 |
| Crimson Sunbird (Aethopyga siparaja) | 7.0 | 137 | 55 | 28.75 | 2 |
| Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) | 100.8 | 332 | 228 | 48.99 | 2 |
| Speckled Piculet (Picumnus innominatus) | 12.8 | 103 | 57 | 24.37 | 2 |
| Plumbeous Water Redstart (Rhyacornis fuliginosus) | 16.5 | 119 | 72 | 28.28 | 1 |
| Sultan Tit (Melanochlora sultanea) | 40.6 | 195 | 105 | 30.55 | 2 |
| Short-tailed Wren Babbler (Napothera brevicaudata) | 27.0 | 146 | 66 | 22.00 | 2 |
| Black-headed Babbler (Stachyris nigriceps) | 18.0 | 117 | 60 | 22.89 | 3 |
| Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops) | 75.9 | 274 | 148 | 34.96 | 2 |
| Crested Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis) | 302.0 | 398 | 188 | 28.02 | 1 |
| Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo (Dicrurus remifer) | 46.3 | 543 | 158 | 44.00 | 2 |
| Snowy-browed Flycatcher (Ficedula hyperythra) | 8.4 | 103 | 59 | 29.02 | 2 |
| Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) | 29.2 | 232 | 113 | 36.70 | 1 |
| Great Pied Woodpecker (Picoides major) | 73.4 | 250 | 134 | 32.00 | 2 |
| Pygmy Wren Babbler (Pnoepyga pusilla) | 11.5 | 87 | 47 | 20.82 | 3 |
| Black-crested Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus) | 31.6 | 193 | 87 | 27.52 | 2 |
| Lesser Pied Kingfisher (Megaceryle lugubris) | 93.0 | 290 | 136 | 30.02 | 1 |
| Oriental Yellow-eyed Babbler (Chrysomma sinense) | 23.3 | 182 | 69 | 24.16 | 2 |
| Brown-breasted Bulbul (Pycnonotus xanthorrhous) | 31.8 | 194 | 88 | 27.78 | 2 |
| White-bellied Green Pigeon (Treron sieboldii) | 290.0 | 300 | 173 | 26.14 | 2 |
| White-rumped Munia (Lonchura striata) | 10.5 | 109 | 50 | 22.83 | 3 |
| Crested Bunting (Melophus lathami) | 22.0 | 140 | 79 | 28.19 | 3 |
| Blackbird (Turdus merula) | 102.0 | 271 | 150 | 32.10 | 3 |
| Spotted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) | 15.0 | 116 | 54 | 21.90 | 3 |
| Pale Blue Flycatcher (Niltava unicolor) | 19.0 | 168 | 84 | 31.48 | 2 |
| Yellow-cheeked Tit (Parus spilonotus) | 18.3 | 137 | 76 | 28.84 | 3 |
| Gray Treepie (Dendrocitta formosae) | 99.1 | 368 | 141 | 30.47 | 2 |
| Ashy Drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus) | 46.8 | 271 | 143 | 39.68 | 2 |
| Franklin's Prinia (Prinia hodgsonii) | 6.1 | 110 | 45 | 24.63 | 3 |
| Gould's Sunbird (Aethopyga gouldiae) | 6.8 | 145 | 55 | 29.03 | 2 |
| Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) | 21.2 | 139 | 68 | 24.57 | 3 |
| Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker (Dicaeum c.cruentatum) | 6.6 | 88 | 48 | 25.59 | 2 |
| Azure-winged Magpie (Pica pica) | 232.4 | 450 | 209 | 33.99 | 3 |
| Blue-and-white Flycatcher (Cyanoptila cyanomelana) | 10.5 | 170 | 61 | 27.86 | 2 |
| Eastern Crowned Warbler (Phylloscopus coronatus) | 9.0 | 116 | 61 | 29.33 | 2 |
| White-rumped Shama (Copsychus malabaricus) | 26.4 | 243 | 89 | 29.89 | 2 |
| Blue-throated Barbet (Megalaima asiatica) | 86.7 | 229 | 100 | 22.59 | 2 |
| White-browed Laughingthrush (Garrulax sannio) | 67.5 | 228 | 97 | 23.82 | 3 |
| Ashy Lauthingthrush (Garrulax cineraceus) | 52.0 | 226 | 87 | 23.31 | 2 |
| White-winged Magpie (Urocissa whiteheadi) | 260.0 | 450 | 211 | 33.06 | 3 |
| Yellow-bellied Warbler (Seicercus superciliaris) | 6.5 | 100 | 49 | 26.26 | 2 |
| Dark-crowned Prinia (Prinia rufescens) | 7.1 | 108 | 42 | 21.85 | 3 |
| Spot-necked Babbler (Stachyris striolata) | 26.4 | 152 | 63 | 21.16 | 3 |
| Grey-bellied Tesia (Tesia cyaniventer) | 8.5 | 82 | 49 | 24.01 | 2 |
| Nonggang Babbler (Stachyris nonggangensis) | 35.5 | 165 | 89 | 27.08 | 3 |
| Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus) | 49.5 | 276 | 143 | 38.95 | 3 |
| Chestnut-crowned Warbler (Seicercus castaniceps) | 5.0 | 96 | 51 | 29.82 | 2 |
| Long-tailed Broadbill (Psarisomus dalhousiae) | 60.0 | 257 | 100 | 25.54 | 2 |
| Asian Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) | 27.7 | 300 | 92 | 30.41 | 2 |
| White-tailed Warbler (Phylloscopus davisoni) | 6.2 | 104 | 53 | 28.85 | 2 |
| White-bellied Jungle Babbler (Pellorneum albiventre) | 17.0 | 140 | 53 | 20.61 | 2 |
| Limestone Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus calciatilis) | 5.6 | 95 | 53 | 29.85 | 2 |
| White-tailed Blue Robin (Cinclidium leucurum) | 23.0 | 174 | 91 | 32.00 | 2 |
| Golden Babbler (Stachyris chrysaea) | 8.0 | 108 | 48 | 24.00 | 2 |
| Velvet-fronted Nuthatch (Sitta frontalis) | 13.1 | 116 | 74 | 31.39 | 2 |
| Gould's Fulvetta (Alcippe brunnea) | 19.5 | 135 | 60 | 22.29 | 2 |
| Red-winged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) | 88.4 | 380 | 158 | 35.47 | 2 |
| Large Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus hypoleucos) | 85.0 | 257 | 96 | 21.83 | 2 |
| Malabar Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) | 786.1 | 788 | 300 | 32.51 | 2 |
| Golden Mountain Thrush (Zoothera dauma) | 127.0 | 285 | 163 | 32.43 | 2 |
| Chestnut-tailed Starling (Sturnia malabaricua) | 44.0 | 196 | 103 | 29.18 | 3 |
| Blue-rumped Pitta (Pitta soror) | 110.0 | 229 | 108 | 22.54 | 2 |
| Dusky Warbler (Phylloscopus fuscatus) | 8.8 | 118 | 61 | 29.55 | 3 |
| Olive-backed Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) | 21.7 | 153 | 83 | 29.76 | 4 |
| Brown Shrike (Lanius cristatus) | 31.9 | 192 | 89 | 28.06 | 2 |
| Yellow-breasted Green Magpie (Cissa hypoleuca) | 156.2 | 328 | 143 | 26.55 | 2 |
| Grey-backed Thrush (Turdus hortulorum) | 75.0 | 240 | 129 | 30.59 | 3 |
| Brown-chested Jungle Flycatcher (Rhinomyias brunneata) | 17.0 | 150 | 80 | 31.11 | 2 |
| Two-barred Greenish Warbler (Phylloscopus plumbeitarsu) | 7.6 | 108 | 58 | 29.50 | 3 |
| Black-necked Tailorbird (Orthotomus atrogularis) | 5.9 | 115 | 43 | 23.80 | 2 |
| Red-headed Trogon (Harpactes erythrocephalus) | 97.0 | 341 | 154 | 33.52 | 2 |
| Oriental White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus) | 8.9 | 100 | 51 | 24.61 | 3 |
| Large Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus sparverioides) | 147.5 | 388 | 236 | 44.67 | 2 |
| Fire-breasted Flowerpecker (Dicaeum ignipectus) | 6.9 | 83 | 49 | 25.74 | 2 |
| Black-throated Sunbird (Aethopyga saturate) | 5.5 | 141 | 53 | 30.03 | 3 |
| Orange-headed Ground Thrush (Zoothera citrine) | 55.0 | 205 | 113 | 29.71 | 2 |
| Brown-breasted Flycatcher (Muscicapa muttui) | 13.5 | 125 | 75 | 31.50 | 2 |
| Large Niltava (Niltava grandis) | 36.4 | 204 | 103 | 31.08 | 2 |
| Verditer Flycatcher (Eumyias thalassina) | 17.7 | 156 | 86 | 33.00 | 2 |
| Asian House Martin (Delichon dasypus) | 11.7 | 113 | 111 | 48.89 | 3 |
| Vivid Niltava (Niltava vivida) | 21.0 | 145 | 82 | 29.72 | 2 |
| Mountain Tailorbird (Orthotomus cuculatus) | 6.9 | 112 | 46 | 24.16 | 2 |
| Oriental Turtle Dove (Streptopelia orientalis) | 238.0 | 331 | 198 | 31.95 | 2 |
| Hill Blue Flycatcher (Niltava banyumas) | 14.3 | 144 | 71 | 29.25 | 2 |
| Bronzed Drongo (Dicrurus aeneus) | 29.2 | 235 | 127 | 41.24 | 2 |
| Russet Sparrow (Passer rutilans) | 22.0 | 135 | 75 | 26.77 | 3 |
| Fairy Pitta (Pitta nympha) | 59.5 | 189 | 119 | 30.48 | 2 |
| Grey-crowned Woodpecker (Picoides canicapillus) | 25.3 | 154 | 95 | 32.36 | 2 |
| Red-winged Shrike Babbler (Pteruthius flaviscapis) | 36.0 | 169 | 83 | 25.14 | 2 |
| Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) | 96.3 | 277 | 126 | 27.49 | 3 |
| Rusty-cheeked Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus erythrogenys) | 69.1 | 228 | 91 | 22.18 | 2 |
| White-spectacled Warbler (Seicercus affinis) | 5.0 | 110 | 50 | 29.24 | 2 |
| Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra) | 13.5 | 147 | 67 | 28.14 | 2 |
| Pin-tailed Green Pigeon (Treron apicauda) | 230.0 | 381 | 154 | 25.13 | 1 |
| Silver-breasted Broadbill (Serilophus lunatus) | 30.2 | 170 | 84 | 26.97 | 2 |
| Dusky Crag Swallow (Ptyonoprogne concolor) | 18.0 | 125 | 105 | 40.06 | 1 |
| Large Cuckoo Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae) | 109.2 | 312 | 180 | 37.66 | 2 |
| Brown-rumped Minivet (Pericrocotus divaricatus) | 22.2 | 192 | 94 | 33.45 | 2 |
| Short-billed Minivet (Pericrocotus brevirostris) | 19.0 | 185 | 87 | 32.60 | 2 |
| Yellow-bellied Bulbul (Alophoixus flaveolus) | 54.2 | 219 | 104 | 27.48 | 2 |
| Grey-backed Shrike (Lanius tephronotus) | 47.1 | 231 | 100 | 27.69 | 2 |
| Slaty-blue Flycatcher (Ficedula tricolor) | 9.4 | 113 | 60 | 28.43 | 2 |
| Streak-breasted Jungle Babbler (Pellorneum ruficeps) | 24.5 | 155 | 67 | 23.07 | 2 |
| Grey-cheeked Warbler (Seicercus poliogenys) | 6.0 | 105 | 51 | 28.07 | 2 |
| Broad-billed Warbler (Seicercus hodgsoni) | 6.0 | 102 | 47 | 25.87 | 2 |
| Rufous-faced Warbler (Abroscopus albogularis) | 5.0 | 96 | 48 | 28.07 | 2 |
| Red-tailed Laughingthrush (Garrulax milnei) | 81.5 | 253 | 96 | 22.14 | 2 |
| Barred Buttonquail (Turnix suscitator) | 74.0 | 161 | 87 | 20.72 | 2 |
| Spectacled Laughingthrush (Garrulax perspicillatus) | 123.6 | 290 | 123 | 24.69 | 3 |
| Lesser Necklaced Laughingthrush (Garrulax pectoralis) | 133.5 | 300 | 135 | 26.41 | 2 |
| Grey-headed Parrotbill (Paradoxornis gularis) | 27.0 | 175 | 80 | 26.67 | 3 |
| Slaty-breasted Banded Rail (Gallirallus striatus) | 140.0 | 256 | 126 | 24.27 | 2 |
| Black-collared Starling (Gracupica nigricollis) | 164.0 | 285 | 164 | 29.96 | 3 |
| Little Pied Flycatcher (Ficedula westermanni) | 7.2 | 108 | 58 | 30.04 | 2 |
| Chinese Babax (Babax lanceolatus) | 63.0 | 239 | 90 | 22.62 | 2 |
| Burmese Shrike (Lanius collurioides) | 31.7 | 190 | 87 | 27.49 | 2 |
| Streaked Spiderhunter (Arachnothera magna) | 33.1 | 188 | 91 | 28.34 | 2 |
| Silver-backed Spinetail Swift (Hirundapus cochinchinensis) | 95.0 | 190 | 168 | 36.82 | 2 |
| Vinous-throated Parrotbill (Paradoxornis webbianus) | 10.2 | 120 | 54 | 24.90 | 2 |
| Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis) | 8.2 | 105 | 51 | 25.29 | 3 |
| Water Rail (Rallus aquaticus) | 160.0 | 270 | 130 | 23.95 | 2 |
| Brownish-flanked Bush Warbler (Cettia fortipes davidiana) | 10.8 | 116 | 53 | 23.98 | 2 |
| Lesser Cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) | 54.8 | 255 | 160 | 42.12 | 2 |
| Blue-winged Leafbird (Chloropsis cochinchinensis) | 24.0 | 169 | 81 | 28.08 | 1 |
| Eurasian Jay (Garrulus glandarius) | 159.3 | 336 | 180 | 33.20 | 2 |
| Yellow-browed Warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus) | 6.5 | 100 | 50 | 26.79 | 3 |
| Blue-breasted Quail (Coturnix chinensis) | 62.0 | 120 | 70 | 17.69 | 3 |
| Small Buttonquail (Turnix sylvatica) | 46.0 | 110 | 66 | 18.42 | 2 |
| Himalayan Greenfinch (Carduelis sinica) | 20.0 | 123 | 81 | 29.84 | 3 |
| Brown Crake (Amaurornis akool) | 184.0 | 277 | 127 | 22.33 | 2 |
| Spectacled Barwing (Actinodura ramsayi) | 39.0 | 177 | 83 | 24.48 | 2 |
| Ruddy-breasted Crake (Porzana fusca) | 76.0 | 220 | 110 | 25.97 | 2 |
| Rufous-bellied Woodpecker (Picoides hyperythrus) | 47.2 | 203 | 122 | 33.76 | 2 |
| Richard's Pipit (Anthus richerdi) | 30.3 | 178 | 97 | 31.11 | 2 |
| Tree Pipit (Anthus trivialis) | 23.2 | 147 | 86 | 30.15 | 2 |
| Long-tailed Minivet (Pericrocotus ethologus) | 16.9 | 190 | 90 | 35.07 | 2 |
| Tiger Shrike (Lanius tigrinus) | 28.9 | 170 | 84 | 27.37 | 2 |
| Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa) | 211.0 | 280 | 163 | 27.38 | 2 |
| Stonechat (Saxicola torquata) | 13.0 | 129 | 67 | 28.49 | 3 |
| Giant Babax (Babax waddelli) | 74.5 | 143 | 130 | 30.90 | 2 |
| Pale-rumped Warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus) | 6.5 | 93 | 51 | 27.33 | 3 |
| Buff-bellied Warbler (Phylloscopus subaffinis) | 6.7 | 99 | 53 | 28.11 | 2 |
| Grey Laughingthrush (Garrulax maesi) | 112.7 | 290 | 134 | 27.74 | 2 |
| Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops philippinus) | 93.0 | 295 | 134 | 29.58 | 2 |
| Forest Wagtail (Dendronanthus indicus) | 17.6 | 165 | 79 | 30.37 | 3 |
| White-shouldered Starling (Sturnia sinensis) | 45.0 | 187 | 103 | 28.96 | 3 |
| Silky Starling (Sturnus sericeus) | 77.6 | 207 | 120 | 28.13 | 3 |
| Chestnut-headed Fulvetta (Alcippe castaneceps) | 8.5 | 107 | 55 | 26.95 | 2 |
| Brown Hill Prinia (Prinia polychroa) | 7.8 | 127 | 47 | 23.70 | 3 |
| Yellowish-bellied Bush Warbler (Seicercus superciliaris) | 9.0 | 107 | 42 | 20.19 | 2 |
| Pale-footed Bush Warbler (Cettia pallidipes) | 9.8 | 117 | 48 | 22.43 | 2 |
| Brown Bush Warbler (Bradypterus luteoventris) | 12.4 | 127 | 51 | 22.03 | 2 |
| Green-backed Tit (Parus monticolus) | 18.1 | 125 | 67 | 25.52 | 3 |
| Watercock (Gallicrex cinerea) | 380.0 | 385 | 103 | 14.22 | 2 |
| Green Imperial Pigeon (Ducula badia) | 487.5 | 433 | 228 | 28.97 | 1 |
| Chestnut-capped Babbler (Timalia pileata) | 23.0 | 165 | 62 | 21.80 | 2 |
| Japanese Bush Warbler (Cettia diphone) | 23.4 | 148 | 73 | 25.52 | 2 |
| Brown-breasted Hill Partridge (Arborophila brunneopectus) | 310.0 | 220 | 130 | 19.21 | 3 |
| Flavescent Green Bulbul (Pycnonotus flavescens) | 33.8 | 206 | 87 | 26.91 | 2 |
| White-crowned Forktail (Enicurus leschenaultia) | 45.0 | 250 | 109 | 30.64 | 2 |
| Crimson-winged Liocichla (Liocichla phoenicea) | 50.0 | 221 | 91 | 24.70 | 3 |
| Black-chinned Yuhina (Yuhina nigrimenta) | 11.0 | 120 | 58 | 26.08 | 2 |
| Black-headed Sibia (Heterophasia melanoleuca) | 36.0 | 195 | 90 | 27.26 | 2 |
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The results of the nestedness are shown by BINMATNEST. The nestedness temperature T of bird communities in southwestern Guangxi was 39.78℃. The degree of nestedness for all three models shows highly significant differences (p < 0.001). These results show that birds in the karst area of southwestern Guangxi have nested patterns (Table 3).
| Null model | p value | Mean temperature (℃) | Variance |
| 1 | < 0.01 | 70.71 | 2.26 |
| 2 | < 0.01 | 62.43 | 3.45 |
| 3 | < 0.01 | 57.61 | 2.70 |
| Note: Nestedness temperature 39.78℃. | |||
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Spearman's rank correlation coefficients indicate that the three habitat features (area: r = 0.121, p > 0.05; distance to the nearest larger fragment: r = 0.115, p > 0.154; vegetation richness: r = 0.055, p > 0.05) and the three life-history traits (body weight: r = 0.026, p > 0.05; body length: r = 0.069, p > 0.05; dp: r = 0.062, p > 0.05) had no significant effect on bird nestedness. The only factor correlated with bird nestedness was bird habitat specificity (r = 0.339, p < 0.01). For more details please see Table 4.
| Habitat features | Life-history traits | |||||||
| Area | Distance to the nearest larger fragment | Vegetation richness | Body weight | Body length | dp | Habitat specificity | ||
| r | 0.121 | 0.115 | −0.055 | 0.026 | 0.069 | 0.062 | 0.339** | |
| p | 0.694 | 0.707 | 0.859 | 0.848 | 0.281 | 0.332 | < 0.01 | |
| ** p < 0.01 | ||||||||
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As with nested patterns of birds at other fragmented habitats (or islands) (Blake et al., 1991; Davidar et al., 2002; Amparo Lázaro et al., 2005; Fischer and Lindenmayer, 2005; Feeley et al., 2007; Louzada et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2010; 2011), we obtained similar result, i.e., strongly nested pattern in bird assemblages in the karst area of southwestern Guangxi. Our result provides further proof that statistically significant nestedness is common (Wright et al., 1998) and is present in almost all types of biological groups and fragmented habitats (islands).
However, from the results of Spearman's rank correlation analysis, we conclude that none of the three habitat features (area, distance to nearest larger fragment, vegetation richness) was statistically significant (p > 0.05), despite the fact that "area" has always been considered to be statistically significant to nested patterns of species (Lomolino and Perault, 2000; Fischer and Lindenmayer, 2005; Wethered and Lawes, 2005). Isolation is not significant to generating nestedness probably because the range of isolation is small in our study. Although the habitat features were not significant in the nested patterns, this does not mean that habitat features do not affect bird assemblages. Single factor cannot affect the distribution pattern of the birds (Schoener and Schoener, 1983a, 1983b). The following reasons should be considered for analyzing the results.
Our study area, i.e., the karst area of southwestern Guangxi, is in a northern tropical area where the main vegetation consists of seasonal tropical rain forests and some broad-leaved forests. On the large scale, fragments are distributed in the region about 2310000 km2, hence differences between fragmented habitats in this large scale landscape can be expected. Some fragments had good protection with a high proportion of a rain forest (e.g. fragments 2, 3, 7, 10–13), but the vegetation of other fragments consisted mainly of broad-leaved forests (e.g. fragments 1, 4–6, 8, 9).
The investigations of tropical forests by Hubbell (2005a; 2005b; 2006) show that it is difficult to explain the diversity often observed in these species-rich communities. Hubbell and other ecologists have proposed the neutral theory (Hubbell, 1979, 2001, 2005a, 2006; Hubbell and Foster, 1983, 1986). They argued that the number of species in a community of a tropical forest is greater than in other forests. Based on our study of the 13 fragment habitats, the number of species in seasonal tropical rain forests was beyond its carrying capacity; for example, fragment 13 had the smallest area, but its number of birds was greater than that of some larger fragments. That "area" was not significant in our study may be the reason for this result.
Habitat specificity was statistically significant to nested patterns of birds. Because vegetation in seasonal tropical rain forest is often unique, with special and a greater variety of habitats, compared with broad-leaved forests, the habitat choice for birds provide for greater differences. Some tropical birds are mainly found in fragments 2, 3 and 13, consisting of larger tropical forests; these include the Red-headed Trogon (Harpactes erythrocephalus), Long-tailed Broadbill (Psarisomus dalhousiae), Blackthroated Sunbird (Aethopyga saturate), Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostris) and others. In contrast, some birds can adapt to and are found in several habitats, such as the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba), Redwhiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis), as well as other birds. Simultaneously it should be noted that the result, that vegetation richness was not significant on nested bird patterns, might be a function of the vegetation in each fragment. Seasonal tropical rain forests have larger food resources and provide more habitat types for greater numbers of bird species, especially the high specificity species.
Among the three bird life-history traits, only habitat specificity was statistically significant on nested bird patterns. Because many species have a bias in favor of one type of habitat and not all types of habitats are randomly found in each fragment, there are nested habitat patterns, hence the nest pattern of habitats caused the nest pattern of species (Calmé and Desrochers, 1999). Different species select different habitats; low habitat specific species can adapt more readily to different kinds of habitat, including large and small fragments. In contrast, high habitat specific species only live in large fragmented habitats.
However, our study have some limitations, for example, the analysis methods for the quantification of nestedness have been developed rapidly, although BINMATNEST remains popular, some other rigorous programs, such as NODF and BR, have also been developed recently. So, it is necessary for us to have further study on bird assemblages of southwestern Guangxi and better to confirm the nested result.
In other words, birds have significant nested patterns in the karst area of southwestern Guangxi by our analysis. In these nested patterns, large habitat fragments always have a high richness vegetation and heterogeneity, i.e., more species, which need strong protection (Zhang, 2008). But many studies, including ours, also prove that even species distributions have significant nestedness; the total number of species in several small fragments was often greater than that of one large fragment, with the same area, as the total area of the small fragments (Beckon, 1993; Cook, 1995; Skaggs and Boecklen, 1996). Hence, for the protection of the diversity of birds in the karst area of southwestern Guangxi, we advocate that, while close attention should also be paid to large fragmented habitats, rich in vegetation, but even more care should be lavished on the kinds of species found in the smaller fragmented habitats, i.e. in the nature reserves.
The study was financed by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 30970381, 31172123). We thank the Forestry Departments of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region for their support and collaboration. Field assistance and logistic support were provided by the staff of all the nature reserve administrations. We also thank Aiwu JIANG, Gang YANG, Chenxing YU, Dong LI, Yinghuan WU and Dongdong ZHAO for their help with fieldwork.
Available on Chinese Birds website, links at http://www.chinesebirds.net, including
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Figures(1) / Tables(5)
| Habitat fragment | Nature reserve | Area (km2) | Distance to nearest larger fragment (m) | Vegetation richness |
| 1 | Qinglongshan nature reserve | 57.2 | 18.7 | 1100 |
| 2 | Nonggang nature reserve * | 54.2 | 7.5 | 1340 |
| 3 | Bangliang nature reserve | 50.7 | 20.4 | 956 |
| 4 | Chunxiu nature reserve | 44.3 | 20.3 | 900 |
| 5 | Huanglianshan nature reserve | 43.6 | 7.5 | 1166 |
| 6 | Gulongshan nature reserve | 40.5 | 34.9 | 1065 |
| 7 | Xialei nature reserve | 35.4 | 52.1 | 1004 |
| 8 | Laohutiao nature reserve | 31.1 | 22.7 | 520 |
| 9 | Encheng nature reserve | 28.7 | 34.9 | 927 |
| 10 | Longhushan nature reserve | 22.5 | 10.2 | 870 |
| 11 | Bapen nature reserve | 20.6 | 37.1 | 231 |
| 12 | Banli nature reserve | 16.8 | 15.2 | 550 |
| 13 | Diding nature reserve | 11.5 | 17.1 | 1000 |
| * Refers to a national nature reserve, the others are regional nature reserves. | ||||
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| Species | Body weight (g) | Body length (mm) | Wing length (mm) | dp | Habitat specificity |
| Chinese Francolin (Francolinus pintadeanus) | 365.0 | 320 | 145 | 20.29 | 3 |
| Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis) | 182.0 | 322 | 159 | 28.06 | 4 |
| Large Green-billed Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus tristis) | 117.5 | 502 | 150 | 30.63 | 2 |
| Common Coucal (Centropus sinensis) | 266.6 | 184 | 217 | 33.72 | 4 |
| Lesser Coucal (Centropus bengalensis) | 99.8 | 330 | 160 | 34.49 | 3 |
| Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) | 27.2 | 165 | 70 | 23.28 | 1 |
| White-throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) | 89.6 | 265 | 117 | 26.15 | 2 |
| Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) | 15.6 | 171 | 109 | 43.62 | 4 |
| Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica) | 20.6 | 180 | 117 | 42.68 | 4 |
| White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) | 21.2 | 181 | 90 | 32.52 | 4 |
| Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus) | 29.2 | 205 | 100 | 32.47 | 3 |
| Red-whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) | 30.7 | 194 | 86 | 27.47 | 4 |
| Chinese Bulbul (Pycnonotus sinensis) | 35.5 | 190 | 90 | 27.38 | 4 |
| Black Bulbul (Hypsipetes leucocephalus) | 54.6 | 237 | 121 | 31.89 | 3 |
| Long-tailed Shrike (Lanius schach) | 58.3 | 261 | 105 | 27.08 | 3 |
| Red-billed Blue Magpie (Urocissa erythrorhyncha) | 170.8 | 555 | 190 | 34.24 | 3 |
| Taiwan Whistling Thrush (Myophoneus caeruleus) | 184.0 | 303 | 173 | 30.42 | 2 |
| Hwamei (Garrulax canorus) | 68.4 | 233 | 93 | 22.74 | 3 |
| Rufous-necked Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus ruficollis) | 25.1 | 190 | 74 | 25.27 | 5 |
| Rufous-capped Babbler (Stachyris ruficeps) | 9.6 | 109 | 52 | 24.47 | 5 |
| Grey-cheeked Fulvetta (Alcippe morrisonia) | 16.0 | 136 | 63 | 25.00 | 3 |
| Yellow-bellied Prinia (Prinia flaviventris) | 7.4 | 136 | 44 | 22.58 | 4 |
| Common Tailorbird (Orthotomus sutorius) | 8.0 | 113 | 45 | 22.50 | 5 |
| Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonicus) | 10.5 | 104 | 55 | 25.12 | 3 |
| Great Tit (Parus major) | 13.7 | 129 | 67 | 28.00 | 5 |
| Hair-crested Drongo (Dicrurus hottentottus) | 88.8 | 311 | 172 | 38.55 | 2 |
| Crested Myna (Acridotheres cristatellus) | 125.2 | 243 | 138 | 27.59 | 3 |
| Fork-tailed Sunbird (Aethopyga christinae) | 6.2 | 103 | 49 | 26.67 | 3 |
| Silver Pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) | 1400.0 | 885 | 250 | 22.35 | 3 |
| White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) | 246.0 | 322 | 170 | 27.13 | 3 |
| White-throated Bulbul (Alophoixus pallidus) | 50.8 | 235 | 110 | 29.70 | 2 |
| Green-winged Bulbul (Hypsipetes mcclellandii) | 40.3 | 232 | 106 | 30.92 | 2 |
| Grey Bushchat (Saxicola ferrea) | 12.3 | 136 | 64 | 27.73 | 3 |
| Hill Prinia (Prinia atrogularis) | 10.6 | 163 | 46 | 20.94 | 3 |
| Plain Prinia (Prinia inornata) | 9.9 | 149 | 45 | 20.96 | 3 |
| Black-throated Tit (Aegithalos concinnus) | 6.4 | 100 | 48 | 25.85 | 3 |
| Black-naped Oriole (Oriolus chinensis) | 78.3 | 247 | 152 | 35.53 | 3 |
| Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) | 990.0 | 633 | 224 | 22.48 | 3 |
| Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) | 103.0 | 324 | 189 | 40.32 | 2 |
| Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris) | 37.2 | 254 | 136 | 40.74 | 2 |
| House Swift (Apus nipalensis) | 26.6 | 139 | 132 | 44.22 | 3 |
| Sooty-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus aurigaster) | 48.7 | 211 | 97 | 26.56 | 3 |
| Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis) | 38.4 | 204 | 96 | 28.46 | 3 |
| Hainan Blue Flycatcher (Niltava hainanus) | 13.9 | 138 | 69 | 28.70 | 3 |
| Black-naped Monarch (Hypothymis azurea) | 12.5 | 143 | 72 | 31.02 | 3 |
| Striated Yuhina (Yuhina castaniceps) | 13.0 | 130 | 56 | 23.82 | 2 |
| Plain Flowerpecker (Dicaeum concolor) | 6.8 | 81 | 46 | 24.28 | 3 |
| Blue Rock Thrush (Monticola solitarius) | 49.4 | 211 | 120 | 32.70 | 3 |
| Grey-chinned Minivet (Pericrocotus solaris) | 17.3 | 181 | 84 | 32.48 | 2 |
| Collared Finchbill (Spizixos semitorques) | 40.5 | 196 | 90 | 26.21 | 2 |
| Chestnut Bulbul (Hemixos castanonotus) | 34.7 | 206 | 101 | 30.97 | 3 |
| Black-throated Laughingthrush (Garrulax chinensis) | 91.0 | 230 | 110 | 24.46 | 2 |
| Orange-bellied Leafbird (Chloropsis hardwickii) | 33.5 | 185 | 90 | 27.92 | 2 |
| Dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis) | 131.7 | 264 | 185 | 36.36 | 2 |
| Large-billed Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) | 525.6 | 475 | 326 | 40.40 | 3 |
| Great Barbet (Megalaima virens) | 190.2 | 333 | 140 | 24.34 | 2 |
| Black-winged Cuckoo Shrike (Coracina melaschistos) | 37.6 | 227 | 117 | 34.92 | 2 |
| Blyth's Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus reguloides) | 7.6 | 104 | 60 | 30.52 | 3 |
| Crow-billed Drongo (Dicrurus annectans) | 60.5 | 269 | 142 | 36.17 | 2 |
| Silver-eared Mesia (Leiothrix argentauris) | 26.0 | 168 | 76 | 25.65 | 2 |
| Red-billed Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea) | 21.5 | 142 | 66 | 23.74 | 2 |
| Larger white-rumped Swift (Apus pacificus) | 37.5 | 178 | 176 | 52.58 | 3 |
| Ring-necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) | 1135.0 | 747 | 232 | 22.24 | 2 |
| Chinese Bamboo Partridge (Bambusicola thoracica) | 271.0 | 308 | 131 | 20.24 | 3 |
| Grey-headed Woodpecker (Picus canus) | 144.7 | 304 | 150 | 28.57 | 2 |
| Rosy Minivet (Pericrocotus roseus) | 19.1 | 186 | 88 | 32.92 | 2 |
| Rusty-capped Fulvetta (Alcippe dubia) | 20.0 | 146 | 62 | 22.84 | 2 |
| White-bellied Yuhina (Yuhina zantholeuca) | 12.5 | 118 | 67 | 28.87 | 2 |
| White-browed Rufous (Piculet Sasia ochracea) | 8.5 | 89 | 55 | 26.95 | 3 |
| Bianchi's Warbler (Seicercus valentini) | 7.3 | 110 | 54 | 27.84 | 3 |
| Small Niltava (Niltava macgrigoriae) | 11.0 | 128 | 64 | 28.78 | 3 |
| Yellow-bellied Sunbird (Cinnyris jugularis) | 7.5 | 107 | 51 | 26.05 | 2 |
| Ashy Wood Swallow (Artamus fuscus) | 40.0 | 178 | 127 | 37.14 | 3 |
| Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica) | 121.0 | 233 | 139 | 28.10 | 2 |
| White-throated Fantail (Rhipidura albicollis) | 11.0 | 177 | 78 | 35.07 | 2 |
| Blue-winged Siva (Minla cyanouroptera) | 18.0 | 151 | 64 | 24.42 | 3 |
| Spectacled Laughingthrush (Eudynamys scolopaceus) | 218.0 | 427 | 202 | 33.56 | 3 |
| Yellow-billed Bay Woodpecker (Blythipicus pyrrhotis) | 117.0 | 254 | 135 | 27.60 | 2 |
| Striped Tit Babbler (Macronous gularis) | 10.7 | 123 | 54 | 24.51 | 3 |
| Rufous Woodpecker (Celeus brachyurus) | 92.0 | 230 | 120 | 26.58 | 2 |
| Fujian Niltava (Niltava davidi) | 24.8 | 170 | 91 | 31.20 | 3 |
| Sulphur-breasted Warbler (Phylloscopus ricketti) | 7.0 | 97 | 57 | 29.80 | 2 |
| Bar-winged Flycatcher Shrike (Hemipus picatus) | 9.4 | 139 | 64 | 30.33 | 3 |
| Red Turtle Dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica) | 111.3 | 231 | 138 | 28.69 | 2 |
| Golden-throated Barbet (Megalaima franklinii) | 81.8 | 217 | 98 | 22.58 | 2 |
| Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher (Culicicapa ceylonensis) | 10.4 | 120 | 62 | 28.40 | 3 |
| Crimson Sunbird (Aethopyga siparaja) | 7.0 | 137 | 55 | 28.75 | 2 |
| Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) | 100.8 | 332 | 228 | 48.99 | 2 |
| Speckled Piculet (Picumnus innominatus) | 12.8 | 103 | 57 | 24.37 | 2 |
| Plumbeous Water Redstart (Rhyacornis fuliginosus) | 16.5 | 119 | 72 | 28.28 | 1 |
| Sultan Tit (Melanochlora sultanea) | 40.6 | 195 | 105 | 30.55 | 2 |
| Short-tailed Wren Babbler (Napothera brevicaudata) | 27.0 | 146 | 66 | 22.00 | 2 |
| Black-headed Babbler (Stachyris nigriceps) | 18.0 | 117 | 60 | 22.89 | 3 |
| Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops) | 75.9 | 274 | 148 | 34.96 | 2 |
| Crested Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis) | 302.0 | 398 | 188 | 28.02 | 1 |
| Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo (Dicrurus remifer) | 46.3 | 543 | 158 | 44.00 | 2 |
| Snowy-browed Flycatcher (Ficedula hyperythra) | 8.4 | 103 | 59 | 29.02 | 2 |
| Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) | 29.2 | 232 | 113 | 36.70 | 1 |
| Great Pied Woodpecker (Picoides major) | 73.4 | 250 | 134 | 32.00 | 2 |
| Pygmy Wren Babbler (Pnoepyga pusilla) | 11.5 | 87 | 47 | 20.82 | 3 |
| Black-crested Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus) | 31.6 | 193 | 87 | 27.52 | 2 |
| Lesser Pied Kingfisher (Megaceryle lugubris) | 93.0 | 290 | 136 | 30.02 | 1 |
| Oriental Yellow-eyed Babbler (Chrysomma sinense) | 23.3 | 182 | 69 | 24.16 | 2 |
| Brown-breasted Bulbul (Pycnonotus xanthorrhous) | 31.8 | 194 | 88 | 27.78 | 2 |
| White-bellied Green Pigeon (Treron sieboldii) | 290.0 | 300 | 173 | 26.14 | 2 |
| White-rumped Munia (Lonchura striata) | 10.5 | 109 | 50 | 22.83 | 3 |
| Crested Bunting (Melophus lathami) | 22.0 | 140 | 79 | 28.19 | 3 |
| Blackbird (Turdus merula) | 102.0 | 271 | 150 | 32.10 | 3 |
| Spotted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) | 15.0 | 116 | 54 | 21.90 | 3 |
| Pale Blue Flycatcher (Niltava unicolor) | 19.0 | 168 | 84 | 31.48 | 2 |
| Yellow-cheeked Tit (Parus spilonotus) | 18.3 | 137 | 76 | 28.84 | 3 |
| Gray Treepie (Dendrocitta formosae) | 99.1 | 368 | 141 | 30.47 | 2 |
| Ashy Drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus) | 46.8 | 271 | 143 | 39.68 | 2 |
| Franklin's Prinia (Prinia hodgsonii) | 6.1 | 110 | 45 | 24.63 | 3 |
| Gould's Sunbird (Aethopyga gouldiae) | 6.8 | 145 | 55 | 29.03 | 2 |
| Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) | 21.2 | 139 | 68 | 24.57 | 3 |
| Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker (Dicaeum c.cruentatum) | 6.6 | 88 | 48 | 25.59 | 2 |
| Azure-winged Magpie (Pica pica) | 232.4 | 450 | 209 | 33.99 | 3 |
| Blue-and-white Flycatcher (Cyanoptila cyanomelana) | 10.5 | 170 | 61 | 27.86 | 2 |
| Eastern Crowned Warbler (Phylloscopus coronatus) | 9.0 | 116 | 61 | 29.33 | 2 |
| White-rumped Shama (Copsychus malabaricus) | 26.4 | 243 | 89 | 29.89 | 2 |
| Blue-throated Barbet (Megalaima asiatica) | 86.7 | 229 | 100 | 22.59 | 2 |
| White-browed Laughingthrush (Garrulax sannio) | 67.5 | 228 | 97 | 23.82 | 3 |
| Ashy Lauthingthrush (Garrulax cineraceus) | 52.0 | 226 | 87 | 23.31 | 2 |
| White-winged Magpie (Urocissa whiteheadi) | 260.0 | 450 | 211 | 33.06 | 3 |
| Yellow-bellied Warbler (Seicercus superciliaris) | 6.5 | 100 | 49 | 26.26 | 2 |
| Dark-crowned Prinia (Prinia rufescens) | 7.1 | 108 | 42 | 21.85 | 3 |
| Spot-necked Babbler (Stachyris striolata) | 26.4 | 152 | 63 | 21.16 | 3 |
| Grey-bellied Tesia (Tesia cyaniventer) | 8.5 | 82 | 49 | 24.01 | 2 |
| Nonggang Babbler (Stachyris nonggangensis) | 35.5 | 165 | 89 | 27.08 | 3 |
| Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus) | 49.5 | 276 | 143 | 38.95 | 3 |
| Chestnut-crowned Warbler (Seicercus castaniceps) | 5.0 | 96 | 51 | 29.82 | 2 |
| Long-tailed Broadbill (Psarisomus dalhousiae) | 60.0 | 257 | 100 | 25.54 | 2 |
| Asian Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) | 27.7 | 300 | 92 | 30.41 | 2 |
| White-tailed Warbler (Phylloscopus davisoni) | 6.2 | 104 | 53 | 28.85 | 2 |
| White-bellied Jungle Babbler (Pellorneum albiventre) | 17.0 | 140 | 53 | 20.61 | 2 |
| Limestone Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus calciatilis) | 5.6 | 95 | 53 | 29.85 | 2 |
| White-tailed Blue Robin (Cinclidium leucurum) | 23.0 | 174 | 91 | 32.00 | 2 |
| Golden Babbler (Stachyris chrysaea) | 8.0 | 108 | 48 | 24.00 | 2 |
| Velvet-fronted Nuthatch (Sitta frontalis) | 13.1 | 116 | 74 | 31.39 | 2 |
| Gould's Fulvetta (Alcippe brunnea) | 19.5 | 135 | 60 | 22.29 | 2 |
| Red-winged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) | 88.4 | 380 | 158 | 35.47 | 2 |
| Large Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus hypoleucos) | 85.0 | 257 | 96 | 21.83 | 2 |
| Malabar Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) | 786.1 | 788 | 300 | 32.51 | 2 |
| Golden Mountain Thrush (Zoothera dauma) | 127.0 | 285 | 163 | 32.43 | 2 |
| Chestnut-tailed Starling (Sturnia malabaricua) | 44.0 | 196 | 103 | 29.18 | 3 |
| Blue-rumped Pitta (Pitta soror) | 110.0 | 229 | 108 | 22.54 | 2 |
| Dusky Warbler (Phylloscopus fuscatus) | 8.8 | 118 | 61 | 29.55 | 3 |
| Olive-backed Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) | 21.7 | 153 | 83 | 29.76 | 4 |
| Brown Shrike (Lanius cristatus) | 31.9 | 192 | 89 | 28.06 | 2 |
| Yellow-breasted Green Magpie (Cissa hypoleuca) | 156.2 | 328 | 143 | 26.55 | 2 |
| Grey-backed Thrush (Turdus hortulorum) | 75.0 | 240 | 129 | 30.59 | 3 |
| Brown-chested Jungle Flycatcher (Rhinomyias brunneata) | 17.0 | 150 | 80 | 31.11 | 2 |
| Two-barred Greenish Warbler (Phylloscopus plumbeitarsu) | 7.6 | 108 | 58 | 29.50 | 3 |
| Black-necked Tailorbird (Orthotomus atrogularis) | 5.9 | 115 | 43 | 23.80 | 2 |
| Red-headed Trogon (Harpactes erythrocephalus) | 97.0 | 341 | 154 | 33.52 | 2 |
| Oriental White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus) | 8.9 | 100 | 51 | 24.61 | 3 |
| Large Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus sparverioides) | 147.5 | 388 | 236 | 44.67 | 2 |
| Fire-breasted Flowerpecker (Dicaeum ignipectus) | 6.9 | 83 | 49 | 25.74 | 2 |
| Black-throated Sunbird (Aethopyga saturate) | 5.5 | 141 | 53 | 30.03 | 3 |
| Orange-headed Ground Thrush (Zoothera citrine) | 55.0 | 205 | 113 | 29.71 | 2 |
| Brown-breasted Flycatcher (Muscicapa muttui) | 13.5 | 125 | 75 | 31.50 | 2 |
| Large Niltava (Niltava grandis) | 36.4 | 204 | 103 | 31.08 | 2 |
| Verditer Flycatcher (Eumyias thalassina) | 17.7 | 156 | 86 | 33.00 | 2 |
| Asian House Martin (Delichon dasypus) | 11.7 | 113 | 111 | 48.89 | 3 |
| Vivid Niltava (Niltava vivida) | 21.0 | 145 | 82 | 29.72 | 2 |
| Mountain Tailorbird (Orthotomus cuculatus) | 6.9 | 112 | 46 | 24.16 | 2 |
| Oriental Turtle Dove (Streptopelia orientalis) | 238.0 | 331 | 198 | 31.95 | 2 |
| Hill Blue Flycatcher (Niltava banyumas) | 14.3 | 144 | 71 | 29.25 | 2 |
| Bronzed Drongo (Dicrurus aeneus) | 29.2 | 235 | 127 | 41.24 | 2 |
| Russet Sparrow (Passer rutilans) | 22.0 | 135 | 75 | 26.77 | 3 |
| Fairy Pitta (Pitta nympha) | 59.5 | 189 | 119 | 30.48 | 2 |
| Grey-crowned Woodpecker (Picoides canicapillus) | 25.3 | 154 | 95 | 32.36 | 2 |
| Red-winged Shrike Babbler (Pteruthius flaviscapis) | 36.0 | 169 | 83 | 25.14 | 2 |
| Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) | 96.3 | 277 | 126 | 27.49 | 3 |
| Rusty-cheeked Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus erythrogenys) | 69.1 | 228 | 91 | 22.18 | 2 |
| White-spectacled Warbler (Seicercus affinis) | 5.0 | 110 | 50 | 29.24 | 2 |
| Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra) | 13.5 | 147 | 67 | 28.14 | 2 |
| Pin-tailed Green Pigeon (Treron apicauda) | 230.0 | 381 | 154 | 25.13 | 1 |
| Silver-breasted Broadbill (Serilophus lunatus) | 30.2 | 170 | 84 | 26.97 | 2 |
| Dusky Crag Swallow (Ptyonoprogne concolor) | 18.0 | 125 | 105 | 40.06 | 1 |
| Large Cuckoo Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae) | 109.2 | 312 | 180 | 37.66 | 2 |
| Brown-rumped Minivet (Pericrocotus divaricatus) | 22.2 | 192 | 94 | 33.45 | 2 |
| Short-billed Minivet (Pericrocotus brevirostris) | 19.0 | 185 | 87 | 32.60 | 2 |
| Yellow-bellied Bulbul (Alophoixus flaveolus) | 54.2 | 219 | 104 | 27.48 | 2 |
| Grey-backed Shrike (Lanius tephronotus) | 47.1 | 231 | 100 | 27.69 | 2 |
| Slaty-blue Flycatcher (Ficedula tricolor) | 9.4 | 113 | 60 | 28.43 | 2 |
| Streak-breasted Jungle Babbler (Pellorneum ruficeps) | 24.5 | 155 | 67 | 23.07 | 2 |
| Grey-cheeked Warbler (Seicercus poliogenys) | 6.0 | 105 | 51 | 28.07 | 2 |
| Broad-billed Warbler (Seicercus hodgsoni) | 6.0 | 102 | 47 | 25.87 | 2 |
| Rufous-faced Warbler (Abroscopus albogularis) | 5.0 | 96 | 48 | 28.07 | 2 |
| Red-tailed Laughingthrush (Garrulax milnei) | 81.5 | 253 | 96 | 22.14 | 2 |
| Barred Buttonquail (Turnix suscitator) | 74.0 | 161 | 87 | 20.72 | 2 |
| Spectacled Laughingthrush (Garrulax perspicillatus) | 123.6 | 290 | 123 | 24.69 | 3 |
| Lesser Necklaced Laughingthrush (Garrulax pectoralis) | 133.5 | 300 | 135 | 26.41 | 2 |
| Grey-headed Parrotbill (Paradoxornis gularis) | 27.0 | 175 | 80 | 26.67 | 3 |
| Slaty-breasted Banded Rail (Gallirallus striatus) | 140.0 | 256 | 126 | 24.27 | 2 |
| Black-collared Starling (Gracupica nigricollis) | 164.0 | 285 | 164 | 29.96 | 3 |
| Little Pied Flycatcher (Ficedula westermanni) | 7.2 | 108 | 58 | 30.04 | 2 |
| Chinese Babax (Babax lanceolatus) | 63.0 | 239 | 90 | 22.62 | 2 |
| Burmese Shrike (Lanius collurioides) | 31.7 | 190 | 87 | 27.49 | 2 |
| Streaked Spiderhunter (Arachnothera magna) | 33.1 | 188 | 91 | 28.34 | 2 |
| Silver-backed Spinetail Swift (Hirundapus cochinchinensis) | 95.0 | 190 | 168 | 36.82 | 2 |
| Vinous-throated Parrotbill (Paradoxornis webbianus) | 10.2 | 120 | 54 | 24.90 | 2 |
| Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis) | 8.2 | 105 | 51 | 25.29 | 3 |
| Water Rail (Rallus aquaticus) | 160.0 | 270 | 130 | 23.95 | 2 |
| Brownish-flanked Bush Warbler (Cettia fortipes davidiana) | 10.8 | 116 | 53 | 23.98 | 2 |
| Lesser Cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) | 54.8 | 255 | 160 | 42.12 | 2 |
| Blue-winged Leafbird (Chloropsis cochinchinensis) | 24.0 | 169 | 81 | 28.08 | 1 |
| Eurasian Jay (Garrulus glandarius) | 159.3 | 336 | 180 | 33.20 | 2 |
| Yellow-browed Warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus) | 6.5 | 100 | 50 | 26.79 | 3 |
| Blue-breasted Quail (Coturnix chinensis) | 62.0 | 120 | 70 | 17.69 | 3 |
| Small Buttonquail (Turnix sylvatica) | 46.0 | 110 | 66 | 18.42 | 2 |
| Himalayan Greenfinch (Carduelis sinica) | 20.0 | 123 | 81 | 29.84 | 3 |
| Brown Crake (Amaurornis akool) | 184.0 | 277 | 127 | 22.33 | 2 |
| Spectacled Barwing (Actinodura ramsayi) | 39.0 | 177 | 83 | 24.48 | 2 |
| Ruddy-breasted Crake (Porzana fusca) | 76.0 | 220 | 110 | 25.97 | 2 |
| Rufous-bellied Woodpecker (Picoides hyperythrus) | 47.2 | 203 | 122 | 33.76 | 2 |
| Richard's Pipit (Anthus richerdi) | 30.3 | 178 | 97 | 31.11 | 2 |
| Tree Pipit (Anthus trivialis) | 23.2 | 147 | 86 | 30.15 | 2 |
| Long-tailed Minivet (Pericrocotus ethologus) | 16.9 | 190 | 90 | 35.07 | 2 |
| Tiger Shrike (Lanius tigrinus) | 28.9 | 170 | 84 | 27.37 | 2 |
| Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa) | 211.0 | 280 | 163 | 27.38 | 2 |
| Stonechat (Saxicola torquata) | 13.0 | 129 | 67 | 28.49 | 3 |
| Giant Babax (Babax waddelli) | 74.5 | 143 | 130 | 30.90 | 2 |
| Pale-rumped Warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus) | 6.5 | 93 | 51 | 27.33 | 3 |
| Buff-bellied Warbler (Phylloscopus subaffinis) | 6.7 | 99 | 53 | 28.11 | 2 |
| Grey Laughingthrush (Garrulax maesi) | 112.7 | 290 | 134 | 27.74 | 2 |
| Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops philippinus) | 93.0 | 295 | 134 | 29.58 | 2 |
| Forest Wagtail (Dendronanthus indicus) | 17.6 | 165 | 79 | 30.37 | 3 |
| White-shouldered Starling (Sturnia sinensis) | 45.0 | 187 | 103 | 28.96 | 3 |
| Silky Starling (Sturnus sericeus) | 77.6 | 207 | 120 | 28.13 | 3 |
| Chestnut-headed Fulvetta (Alcippe castaneceps) | 8.5 | 107 | 55 | 26.95 | 2 |
| Brown Hill Prinia (Prinia polychroa) | 7.8 | 127 | 47 | 23.70 | 3 |
| Yellowish-bellied Bush Warbler (Seicercus superciliaris) | 9.0 | 107 | 42 | 20.19 | 2 |
| Pale-footed Bush Warbler (Cettia pallidipes) | 9.8 | 117 | 48 | 22.43 | 2 |
| Brown Bush Warbler (Bradypterus luteoventris) | 12.4 | 127 | 51 | 22.03 | 2 |
| Green-backed Tit (Parus monticolus) | 18.1 | 125 | 67 | 25.52 | 3 |
| Watercock (Gallicrex cinerea) | 380.0 | 385 | 103 | 14.22 | 2 |
| Green Imperial Pigeon (Ducula badia) | 487.5 | 433 | 228 | 28.97 | 1 |
| Chestnut-capped Babbler (Timalia pileata) | 23.0 | 165 | 62 | 21.80 | 2 |
| Japanese Bush Warbler (Cettia diphone) | 23.4 | 148 | 73 | 25.52 | 2 |
| Brown-breasted Hill Partridge (Arborophila brunneopectus) | 310.0 | 220 | 130 | 19.21 | 3 |
| Flavescent Green Bulbul (Pycnonotus flavescens) | 33.8 | 206 | 87 | 26.91 | 2 |
| White-crowned Forktail (Enicurus leschenaultia) | 45.0 | 250 | 109 | 30.64 | 2 |
| Crimson-winged Liocichla (Liocichla phoenicea) | 50.0 | 221 | 91 | 24.70 | 3 |
| Black-chinned Yuhina (Yuhina nigrimenta) | 11.0 | 120 | 58 | 26.08 | 2 |
| Black-headed Sibia (Heterophasia melanoleuca) | 36.0 | 195 | 90 | 27.26 | 2 |
DownLoad:
CSV
| Null model | p value | Mean temperature (℃) | Variance |
| 1 | < 0.01 | 70.71 | 2.26 |
| 2 | < 0.01 | 62.43 | 3.45 |
| 3 | < 0.01 | 57.61 | 2.70 |
| Note: Nestedness temperature 39.78℃. | |||
DownLoad:
CSV
| Habitat features | Life-history traits | |||||||
| Area | Distance to the nearest larger fragment | Vegetation richness | Body weight | Body length | dp | Habitat specificity | ||
| r | 0.121 | 0.115 | −0.055 | 0.026 | 0.069 | 0.062 | 0.339** | |
| p | 0.694 | 0.707 | 0.859 | 0.848 | 0.281 | 0.332 | < 0.01 | |
| ** p < 0.01 | ||||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
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